Psychological thought has developed constantly over the centuries. In the present day, this wide and varied subject area can be divided broadly into the following areas: behaviourism, evolutionary psychology, biological psychology (including neuroscience), cognitive psychology, experimental social psychology, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, psychometrics and social constructionism. This list—and by no means is it complete—can be further subdivided into many more specific processes of psychological explanation. It is inevitable that these perspectives, to a certain extent, will have some areas of commonality, or, at least, will be complementary; some points of view will conflict and psychologists’ claims will remain exclusive; while other arguments, having no point of contact, will simply co-exist. It is extremely important for psychologists to consider the relationships between these theories. Researchers should take into account what is known as the three Cs—in a chosen area of study, perspectives either (1) conflict, (2) complement each other or (3) co-exist (Cooper & Roth, 2007). The purpose of this report is not to outline the main tenets of these approaches, but, rather, to evaluate the proposition that different perspectives in the field of psychology co-exist rather than conflict each other: the author will focus on the DSE212 handbook, Book 2.

 

Although it is beyond the scope of this report to categorize each of the outlined perspectives still further, it would, nevertheless, be useful to refer to other subdivisions of the above approaches to psychology.

 

In the first instance, the author will be looking at sex and gender. This topic has fascinated scientists over the years and has been controversial; it is also a good example of how one topic can encompass different levels of analysis. Generally speaking, a biological psychologist would focus on hormonal activity, genes, the differences and similarities between female and male brains, and the biological factors associated with behavioural and cognitive gender differences; a psychologist working within the evolutionary perspective would consider optimal reproductive styles of males and females, parental investment, sexual competitiveness and male commitment; social constructionists would discuss gender stereotypes, social identity, the importance of school for gender-specific behaviour, and the struggle for equality; and psychoanalysts, depending on his or her school of thought, would speak of the importance of sexuality and gender relations in the development of the self and, more specifically, on oedipal themes, the development of the ego/super ego, identification and the symbolization of the penis.

 

All four perspectives seek to explain the differences and similarities between males and females. The biological approach provides evidence of the differences between male and female hormones, brain regions and genetic characteristics. However, it does not attempt to address the question of human experience. So, on its own, it does not provide any information about the psychology of the sexes. Biological psychology, therefore, co-exists with the social constructionist prospective—the two approaches neither conflict not do they complement each other. Social constructionist psychologists have concentrated on how individuals develop their sense of identity through their social interaction—at school, and with parents and friends. They argue that, as soon as a baby is ‘labelled’ a girl or a boy, he or she is dressed in blue or pink clothes and begins his or her life-long journey where (s)he discovers his or her unique identity through ‘male-’ or ‘femaleness’ respectively.

 

Although both within the hermeneutic tradition, psychoanalytic theory and social constructionism generally conflict. Freudian psychoanalysts concentrate on early aggressive and libidinal drives and the internalization of meanings concerning sexual difference. A central theme is the oedipal conflict. In early childhood, a boy discovers that he has a penis and fantasizes about removing the father and keeping the mother—a source of care, love and attention—all to himself. Again, according to Freud, girls envy boys because they do not possess this symbolically powerful external genitalia. However, this theory conflicts with the social constructivist prospective because it does not account for how boys and girls later interact and discover their gender identity at school. It does not take into account the fact that girls often obtain gender equality and even superiority possibly due to the fact that they are able better to connect with the female dominant teaching staff present at primary schools.

 

Evolutionary psychology, like the biological prospective, embraces the scientific approach. Through it investigation of human sexual, parental, emotional and protective type behaviours, it seeks to elucidate the differences between the sexes. But, while it looks at the behaviour of primates tens of millions of years ago, it does not look specifically at the complex behaviour of humans today. Does it therefore conflict with the social constructionist perspective? Certainly. However, evolutionary researchers stress that the male and female feelings are unconscious—that is to say, that they are archetypal predispositions that underpin our behaviour. Further, Buss (2000) said that more understanding of our ancestral heritage could help us to understand and prepare for difficult instances within modern-day relationships.

 

Now, for some examples in the context of life span development. Evolutionary psychologists stress the importance of having a secure, protective base. This protective base is of primordial importance for females because it is an indication of male commitment, and it ensures that she has a safe place during the long process of rearing her children. It is complementary with psychoanalytic theory—specifically attachment theory—because it is vital that a child has a secure place so that he can develop his ability to explore the outside world knowing that he can return home at any time (Bowlby, 1988).        

 

Bowlby, a developmental psychologist and attachment theorist, combined psychoanalytic theory, looking at the relationship between mother and infant, cybernetics, ethology, neuroscience, and how complex networks of neurons in the amygdala imprint information about their emotional environment, evolutionary theory and primordial instinct, object relations theory as well as developmental psychology. It is clear that he saw many of the above perspectives as complementary. Of note, he explained that individuals had a primary drive, and that they had a primary attachment with the mother. Here, object relations theory complements both evolutionary and biological perspectives. He also emphasized that the internal working model set up here was essential for future relationships (Bowlby, 2000). Erikson (1950), essentially a psychoanalyst, also complements the social constructivist approach with his psychosocial model of development.

 

An evolutionary psychologist, by contrast, might say that adaptive future relationships will help secure future offspring, while Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, focussing on the ages 0-2, 2-6, 6-12 and over 12 years of age, and which concentrates on first sequences, concrete operations and, finally, abstract reason seems to co-exist with evolutionary psychology and social constructionist theory. Some might argue that Piaget was also an evolutionary psychologist because he, like Darwin, observed his own children in order to draw conclusions about cognitive development.

 

In essence, Piaget’s theory of genetic epistemology refers to the study of intelligence in relation to one’s adaptation to their personal environment. Thus, this theory draws from cognitive and social constructionist thought. But, why are certain people better than others at particular skills? For example, take a woman who is a highly successful opera singer. She might be good because she was repeatedly played classical music in the womb and this subliminal and transferiential musical education gave her an innate ability to sing beautifully well (biological). On the other hand, she might have heard her mother sing and, consciously or otherwise, realized that this ability attracted the attention of the father (psychoanalytic). Another theory is that she realized that singing gave her an advantage and prestige over the other girls in the class (interpersonal/social constructionist), or even that a rival sibling had experienced this first and she wanted the same for herself. She might have been blessed with a genetic make-up which gave her particularly proportioned vocal chords which made a beautiful sound and, with little practice, would be able to develop rapidly (biological). By contrast, she might have worked extremely hard on her voice (behavioural). Further, she might have had an archetypal pre-disposition to sing, with an innate knowledge that it attracts good quality mates (evolutionary). It is likely, however, that the singer was affected by a number of environmental and historical contexts—this is the basis of developmental contextualism.           

 

This report, with its many examples, has shown that psychology is a complex, multi-faceted discipline which, although some theories co-exist and have little point of contact, draws from information across many perspectives. It is the juxtaposition of opposing perspectives which makes psychology a challenging and constantly evolving subject.

    

TOTAL WORDS: 1, 515

 

 

 

 

References

 

Bowlby, J (1988). A secure base: clinical applications of attachment theory. (Routledge: London).   

 

Buss DM (2000). The evolution of happiness. American Psychologist, 55:15-23. 

 

Cooper T & Roth I, eds. (2007). DSE212 Challenging Psychological Issues. (Open University Press: Milton Keynes).

 

Erikson EH (1950). Childhood and Society. (Norton: New York).  

‘The effect of significant others on adult psychological development: a qualitative, thematic analysis of an interview with a 50-year-old woman’.

 

Abstract (99 words)

This study examines the view of attachment theorists within the object relations school that significant others in early life—that is to say, important, often older, influential figures—play an important role in an adult person’s psychological development, particularly with regard to later sexual relationships. A qualitative, thematic analysis was carried out on one pre-existing, and pre-transcribed interview between a psychology student and a 50 year old lady—Chloe. Third level thematic analysis provides evidence that dominant and influential figures—notably, parents, guardians and surrogate parents—shape the way in which individuals build relationships with others in later life.      

 

******

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction (755 words)

Throughout this study, through the discursive, thematic analysis of the text, and while constructing the report, I have kept within a social constructionist perspective—specifically, keeping in mind attachment theory. At the heart of developmental psychology is the assumption that vertical relationships with significant others in early childhood influence children’s psychological development. These influences shape the way that children interact with their peers but also affect the way in which they develop relationships with adults later in life. This topic is one that is extremely complex, and it is beyond the scope of this report to give a detailed analysis of attachment theory; however, there are a number of important aspects of this theoretical stance that are apposite to this study.

 

One of the most important themes in attachment theory is consistency or, rather constancy. It is extremely important for young children to know that they have a secure base to return to after they have explored some small part of the world. For instance, the healthy child, knowing that the parent will still be there after closing his eyes, will enjoy the peek-a-boo experience: it acts as a mechanism for testing reality, it begins the process of subjectivity for the child and, further, this ‘engagement-disengagement behaviour’ helps the child to explore the world in a safe way (Horner, 1985). 

 

However, when this security is disturbed, for instance when a member of the family triad moves away or separates permanently, consistency is interrupted. Similarly, when the family moves around too frequently, or when the family moves to another country where the child has to find new friends in a completely different culture, this can cause emotionally instability. The family home, as a unit, is thus extremely important. The importance of having a secure base and a consistently attuned relationship continues in later life. We are drawn to our significant others: we spend more time with older, wiser individuals who inspire us (vertical relationships) and feel attached, and are drawn towards, our sexual partners (horizontal relationships). And, when these relationships fail in some way, we often feel let down, and this has an impact on our every day lives.

 

Ainsworth and Bowlby (1991), key figures in the development of attachment theory, spoke constantly about how important it is for the child to have a secure base. Of paramount importance, however, was what they called the ‘primary attachment’—the relationship the child has with his mother. This should be a warm, continuous and intimate relationship where the child is protected from danger and is able to communicate effectively (Bretherton, 1997).  Here, the healthy child should be able to build an ‘internal working model’ of the mother in order to comfort himself—with the aid of a blanket or mobile toy of some kind—when she is not there. Later in life, this self comforting can manifest itself in the form of listening to music, reading a book or watching the television. Insecure individuals—those who have been let down by significant others in the past—find it more difficult to comfort themselves, and some turn to alcohol or drugs, some go to extremes to gain some sort of satisfaction, and many find it difficult to hold down relationships in adult life. Indeed, Hazan and Shaver (1987) gathered a large quantity of information on people’s attachment styles and devised three different stances: (1) Anxious avoidant style (Insecure), where the individual is somewhat uncomfortable being close to others, (2) Secure Style, where the individual finds is relatively easy to get along with others and (3) Anxious Ambivalent Style (Insecure), where other people are reluctant to get close to the individual. Further, Main, Kaplan and Cassidy (1985) used a standardized interview to explore how adults describe their childhood experiences with their parents; from the analysis of the data, they also described the extent to which significant others in early life affected children’s psychopathogy and their relationships later in life.

 

Importantly, however, it has been found that some adults, having experienced a difficult or enmeshed interaction with a family member as a child, are able, in the right circumstances, to move on in their lives and develop strong, secure marital relationships as an adult (Ainsworth, 1989). This is known as earned security (Main and Goldwyn, 1984).

 

The following iterative thematic analysis (involving re-working and re-drafting), which is in line with the above theoretical framework, looks at the way Chloe’s family dynamics have affected her relationships in adult life. The research question is as follows:

 

‘How do adults perceive that significant others in their lives have affected their development?’

 

Method (215 words)

The thematic analysis in this study has been taken from pre-existing material—a transcribed interview between a psychology student, Helen Lucey, and a participant, Chloe. In order to protect the privacy of both researcher and participant, and to respect the confidentiality of all concerned, the names have been changed. In addition, the interviews on the DVDs were played by actors but were based on interviews with the original research participants. This study focuses on the second of the two recorded interviews, but, in both cases, informed consent was given; further, both interviews have been edited in order to produce shorter extracts for analytical purposes. Thus, the research conforms to the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (British Psychological Society, 2006): informed consent has been given and both participants have been treated with mutual respect.

 

In the carrying out of the thematic analysis, I first highlighted the most important elements of the text in respect to the way in which Chloe’s past had influenced her development in later life. The next two stages (2^nd order coding and 3^rd order coding) involved a great deal of reflexivity, condensation, categorization and narrative structuring techniques. Finally, I compiled a number of important themes which indicated the extent to which Chloe had been affected by significant others in her childhood. 

    

Analysis (684 words)

At the beginning of the interview (see the appendix), the psychologist asked Chloe about her early relationships as a child and how she thought that they had influenced her in later life. Immediately, I was struck by the fact that Chloe had gone through an extremely difficult time with her mother when her father had left home. Her mother had been affected dramatically and had transferred a great deal of her pain towards her daughter, Chloe. In addition, Chloe was expected, somehow, to, ‘fill in for [her] dad’ and, ‘be a grown up’; certainly, she was too young to play this role and wasn’t sure how to act in this complex situation. She had to guess. It is interesting to point out that, in the first part of Chloe’s free association, between lines 20 and 34, she prefaced many of her recollections with the words, ‘sort of’—in fact, she said these words fourteen times. Perhaps, at the time of the interview, she was still unclear how she was supposed to behave. It is clear that the situation of being without a father and coping with her mother’s highly-charged emotional behaviour had had a deleterious affect on Chloe’s well being, and the process of analysis has revealed ways in which this has affected her future, adult relationships.

 

After reviewing the text and simplifying the codification, taking into account the research question, I have identified three main themes which point out that the early relationship between Chloe and her mother, from the age of eight onwards, had somewhat failed.

 

(1)   Mother’s depressive and self-centred behaviour

When the father left, Chloe described her mother as someone who had become, ‘really, really down and very, very needy’. Mothers have an instinct to support an nurture their children, but when this is reversed, and when the mother needs more support than the child, problems occur. Attachment theory is centred on the fact that the mother should support and care for her children. Chloe said of her mother that,

‘She was very depressed and very sad and…needy and there wasn’t really…much room for me, it was…it felt as if everything was…to do with what she needed’.

 

Further, Chloe felt unsupported: her mother was unable to empathize with or support her daughter, or even help her with any of her emotional problems. She reported that,

‘She wasn’t…good at…like if I was sad…she would be…very dismissive about it, what have you got to be sad about? And, you’re not really allowed to be sad.’

 

Chloe was also not able to express happiness:

‘And if I was very cheery about something it was like: oh, well it’s all right for you’.

 

As a result, Chloe felt that she had lost both ways (line 41): she was made to feel guilty about her feelings. More will be said about this theme in the third part of this section.  

 

(2)   Disappointment

When her father left, Chloe built up an idealized internal object of her father.

‘He was a super duper… a wonderful person and he loved me in all the, you know, in a very sort of complete way, a very accepting way’.

 

However, her dreams and illusions were shattered when she realized that he was, ‘a pompous and insecure person’, and he was, ‘not good…if [she was] grumpy’. Chloe was also disappointed about living with his new family.

 

(3)   Feelings of guilt (separation anxiety disorder and happiness)

From the text, Chloe made it clear that her mother disapproved of her being happy and made her feel guilty. The early relationship between mother and daughter was highly-charged and enmeshed: she felt that she was, ‘closely interwoven’, that she was, ‘too tied up together’ and, ‘too close’. Chloe used these phrases to describe the way that she felt prior to moving away to do her PhD. She also felt guilty when she met her first partner, and this manifested itself in her separation anxiety disorder:

‘I’d gone away, I’d left her; I’d got married and I was very happy, so I felt really bad about that, and I felt like I was deserting her…’

 

 

 

Discussion (420 words)

The main aim of this investigation was to use a personal account to draw out examples of how significant others affect psychological development. The three themes identified in the analysis show clearly how these early influences have affected Chloe’s future relationships. As soon as Chloe got back from her honeymoon, she felt miserable. She felt guilty about leaving her mother and also that she was happy. Her separation anxiety disorder, coupled with her feelings of guilt associated with her own happiness, had begun to interfere with her adult relationship. This links directly back to the fact that her mother, having lost her husband was not going to lose a daughter too, especially if she intended going to university and finding a husband of her own. One can only speculate how the theme of disappointment manifested itself within this relationship. It is interesting that she did not mention this in the interview.

 

It is important to point out here that, up until the stage when Chloe had decided to move away and work on her research degree, she felt too close, and perhaps controlled by her mother. The transferiential feelings of guilt had affected her relationships and also her ability to study (or make personal plans) on her own. She made a definite move away. Towards the end of the interview, Chloe used the word ‘space’ to describe a healing process: she was able to be disinterested about her mother, and to see the good things about her; she began to shift the blame away from herself; she didn’t feel guilty; and generally felt a lot happier. As a result, her second, ongoing relationship with Ian was a much more positive experience.

 

The extent of this adaptive behaviour was unexpected. Chloe, despite the extreme circumstances surrounding her childhood, had been able to work through her problems and build a successful relationship. This stresses the significance of ‘earned security’ in adult life (Main and Goldwyn, 1984): the fact that, regardless of early trauma, adults are able to have successful partnerships. In this case, it was Chloe’s acceptance and the fact that she had been able to disengage herself from her mother’s control that contributed to her well-being.

 

These findings support the view of attachment theorists that the mother/father bond with a child needs to be caring, attuned, supportive and consistent. The consequences of bad parenting can affect the child’s ability to have successful adult relationships in the future and, in addition, can limit their capacity for autonomy and adaptive self- nurturing.  

 

Reflexive Analysis (346 words)

It is inevitable, in an analysis of this kind, that a researcher is influenced by the comments of the participant and, to a certain extent, brings his own, personal experiences into play. These experiences affect and influence the interpretations. For instance, even the most experienced psychoanalysts, having undergone extensive and thorough personal analysis several times a week for many years, and having been trained to be unbiased and non-judgemental, still influence their patients in the comments that they make. Counter-transference is a common, and often helpful, phenomenon.

 

This thematic analysis was no exception. I think that I was influenced by the fact that Chloe felt guilty about moving away; I have experienced this myself, and I know many people who have also suffered guilt about separation. I also know the importance of personal space and how it is important to find somewhere away from one’s parents so that one can study effectively. In addition, I, even from the limited amount of information on the page, had some idea of the similar demographic position which Chloe had taken. I, thus, had to re-address the initial codification of the text. In the first instance, I noted the importance of space and fulfilling personal goals, but I realized that my own intentions and pre-occupations had affected my judgement—the important point was that Chloe had begun to move away from her mother and been able to work through her problems and build a successful relationship with Ian.

 

It would be interesting to add pauses to the text and to analyze the number of pauses and how they affected the content. Further research could be done in this area. In addition, I would be interested to analyze the significance of some of the repetitions and the repeated words and phrases such as ‘space’, ‘sort of’, ‘linking’ and ‘disappointment’ to name but a few. And, although I was interested in these phrases at the beginning of the analytical process—and I had to concentrate more specifically on the themes related to the research question—further investigation might reveal some  important implications. 

 

  TOTAL WORDS: 2, 489        

 

 

References

Ainsworth M (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44 (4): 709-716.

 

Ainsworth MS & Bowlby J (1991). An ethological approach to personality development. American Psychologist, 46 (4): 333-341.

 

Bretherton, I (1997). Bowlby’s legacy to developmental psychology. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 28 (1): 33-43.

 

British Psychological Society (2006). Code of Ethics and Conduct (March, 2006).

 

Hazan C and Shaver P (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (3): 511-524. 

 

Horner TM (1985). Subjectivity, intentionality, and the emergence of reality testing in early infancy. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 2 (4): 341-363. 

 

Main M and Goldwyn R (1984). Predicting rejection of her infant from mother’s representation of her own experience: implications for the abused-abusing intergenerational cycle. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8 (2): 203-217.   

 

Main M, Kaplan N and Cassidy J (1985). Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: a move to the level of representation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50: 66-104.

This report assesses the value of neuropsychological studies on memory impairment and the examinations of exceptional memory and how these contribute to our understanding of memory itself.

 

For some time, psychologists—Ebbinghaus (1997) and Anderson (1971), amongst many others—have used the expressions ‘encoding’, ‘storage’ and ‘retrieval’ when describing the component processes of memory. The concept of ‘encoding’ is particularly helpful because it describes the way in which humans categorize stimuli. Codes are formed using a combination of all our sensory modalities, our cognitive reasoning and unconscious processing. The word ‘sea’, for example, can be stored in a manner which focuses on its appearance (visual), its meaning (semantic), its action (motor/kinaesthetic), its sound (auditory), its taste, (gustatory) or even its smell (olfactory). Information can also be encoded in response to affect, pleasure and pain or a combination of these encoding systems. It is perhaps in the analysis of encoding and in the processes involved in recall that will enable us to understand memory better.

 

This hypothesis brings about some important questions. Why do some people forget names but are able to recount stories from the past? What is the best way to study for an exam—in short bursts, the night before, or over a course of several weeks? And, why do some older individuals suffer from short-term memory loss? It is beyond the scope of this report to answer all of these questions; however, the analysis of exceptional and impaired memories might help us to understand further how memory works.

 

It is important at this point to define short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM). STM refers to recent memory and LTM holds coded information for a significant amount of time. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) described STM as a ‘workbench’ system of memory; they proposed that humans take in new knowledge and relate it to the past.  

 

So, if STM works in tandem with LTM, and LTM recall relies on the activation of coded information, perhaps one way to analyze memory is to focus on individuals with exceptional memory. Luria (1969) described the exceptional ability of SV Shereshevskii, a man who was able to memorize long lists of nonsense syllables and numbers. Astonished by this man’s exceptional ability, Luria set about to analyse the skills that he used. First, the subject used elaborate mental images to help him to remember the various stimuli in the memory tests. His memory was aided by his synaesthesia—his ability to link one sensory modality with another. However, Shereshevskii scored within the normal range for standard intelligence tests. How does this example help psychologists to understand how normal memory function works? One answer is that the imagery and associative techniques used by Shereshevskii could help to enhance ‘normal’ memory ability. In short, the encoding of the imagery and mnemonics aid memory.

 

Wilding and Valentine (1994) in an experiment gave ten memory experts a number of different memory tests, including story recall, word and digit recall, autobiographical memory and face recognition. They concluded that ‘memory strategists’ used every day memory tricks to recall long lists of stimuli.

 

What are these every day tricks? Luria (1969) described three strategies that are useful, and, although this list was used specifically to enhance one’s ability to remember meaningless words, the techniques are transferable. The strategies are as follows. (1) Semanticisation. Here, one converts the information to something that is meaningful. In the case of Shereshevskii, he attached a Russian meaning to the made-up Italianate word.  (2) Association. Memory can be enhanced by association—perhaps, the sound of the word, the shape or colour (3) Imagery. Forming an image or symbol can magnify the efficiency of one’s learning. For instance, one might associate an apple with the shape one has to make with one’s hands and mouth in order either to make the first syllable of the word or to eat it. Needlesstosay, imagery has been used by primary school teachers for decades: the alphabet is taught by associating each letter with an inanimate object (A for apple; B for bear etc.).

 

It is clear that the techniques used by exceptional memory experts can help us better to understand how we can enhance memory recall. Further evidence has been collated by Maguire, Frackowiak et al (1997) who used PET imaging to scan taxi drivers’ brains while they imagined complex routes in London. Results showed that the right hippocampus was activated when they imagined complex routes, but, in the control, where they simply visualized landmarks, activity in this rejoin disappeared. This report indicates that the hippocampus not only plays an active role in recalling and transferring episodic information to the temporal cortex, thus establishing the stimuli as semantic memory, but it also stores spatial memory.

 

In 2003, Maguire, Valentine et al, using brain imaging, showed that superior memorizers’ skills were not driven by intellectual ability, but by spatial learning techniques which engaged the hippocampus. Further, Mayer (1983) investigated the effect of sheer repetition on memory recall—again, this technique has been used by primary and secondary school teachers for centuries.

 

But, perhaps, it is through the analyses of memory impairment that we are likely to gain more insight. If we can show why people vary in their ability to recall information, pin-pointing specific areas of the brain, we might be able to understand the specific structures of memory.

 

The concept of localization of memory has been prevalent since the late 19^th century. Broca and Wernicke (cited in Penfield and Roberts, 1959), who performed autopsies on patients who had suffered from severe language difficulties during their lifetime, deduced that these problems had been caused by lesions to specific areas of the brain in the left hemisphere.

 

Since then, brain scanning techniques such as fMRIs and PETs have analyzed brain activity during task performance. This technology has enabled neuropsychologists to target specific areas of the brain and have helped them better to understand how memory works. There have been studies on ‘double dissociation’, where a patient’s memory function appears normal in one respect (say, with regard to LTM) and impaired in another (say, STM). These studies (for instance, Warrington and Shallice, 1969; Scoville and Milner, 1957; Mangels et al, 1996) suggest that there are areas of the brain which are responsible for different types of memory. However, the brain is adaptable. Children’s brains are the most adaptable to change; if a child has damage to the left side of the brain, often (s)he will compensate on the right side—(s)he might develop language on the right hemisphere (Vicari et al, 2000). In addition, although to a lesser extent, adult patients suffering from brain injury also make adjustments (Nudo, 2003).

 

Tulving (1972) subdivided memory into two categories: (1) episodic, referring to the long-term memory of personal events and information and (2) semantic memory, which is responsible for general knowledge. In a report by Vargha-Khadem et al (1997), three young people who had suffered damage to the hippocampal region at birth—notably, the adjacent temporal cortex was left in tact—all had difficulty remembering any specific episodes in their lives. By contrast, Bozeat et al (2000) described cases in which patients had suffered damage to the temporal cortex, with no injury to the hippocampus: these patients’ episodic memories for personal experience were normal, but they had a highly reduced loss of memory associated with facts and meanings of words.

 

These reports suggest that the hippocampus is responsible for ‘episodic’ memory, and the temporal cortex for ‘semantic’ memory. There have been criticisms of these theories. Conway et al (1997) spoke of the interaction of episodic and semantic memory: they pointed out that repeated experiences are important for our understanding of general knowledge. Tulving (1985) pointed out that memory was built on a number of interconnected systems and operating components—viz., neural substrates and their cognitive and behavioural correlates. He added ‘procedural memory’ (‘learning how’ to do something), and made it clear that all three memories worked in conjunction with each other.

 

However, although the brain is highly adaptable, it is clear that damage to certain areas of the brain can lead to memory impairment. Warrington and Shallice (1969) reported the case of KF who suffered injury to the left parieto-occipital lobe after a motorcycle accident. As a result, his LTM was left unscathed, but his STM was reduced so severely that he was only able to remember one or two objects at a time. Scoville and Milner (1957) reported a case of a man (HM) who, because of his severe epilepsy, had hippocampal and temporal cortex tissue removed. As a result, HM was unable to formulate any long term memory.

 

In conclusion, it is clear that memory is a highly complex and interrelated system, and its efficiency relies on the way we construct and reconstruct our past experience, knowledge and associative information. But, it is in our understanding of exceptional memory and memory impairment that helps us to understand the extent and limitations of the memory system.

TOTAL WORDS: 1, 495

 

 

References

 

Anderson RC (1971). Encoding processes in the storage and retrieval of sentences’. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 91 (2): 338-40.

 

Baddeley AD and Hitch G (1974). ‘Working memory’ in GD Bower (ed.) Recent Advances in Learning and Motivation, 8 (New York: Academic Press).

 

Bozeat S, Lambon-Ralph MA, Patterson K, Garrard P and Hodges JR (2000). Non-verbal semantic impairment in semantic dementia. Neuropsycholgia, 38: 1207-15.

 

Conway MA, Gardiner JM, Perfect TJ, Anderson SJ and Cohen GM (1997). Changes in memory awareness during learning: the acquisition of knowledge by psychology undergraduates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126: 393-413.

 

Ebbinghaus, H (1997). Memory (Toronto: York University).

 

Luria A (1969). Mind of a Mnemonist (London: Jonathan Cape).  

 

Maguire EA, Frackowiak RSJ and Frith CD (1997) Recalling routes around London: activation of the right hippocampus in taxi drivers. Journal of Neuroscience, 17: 7103-10.

 

Maguire EA, Gadian DG, Johnsrude IS, Good CD, Ashburner J, Frackowiak RSJ and Frith CD (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 97 (8): 4398-4403. 

 

Maguire EA, Valentine ER, Wilding JM and Kapur N (2003). Routes to remembering: the brains behind superior memory. Nature Neuroscience, 6 (1): 90-95.

 

Mangels JA, Gershberg FB, Shimamura AP, Knight RT (1996). Impaired memory retrieval from remote memory in patients with frontal lobe damage. Neuropsychology, 10 (1): 32-41.

 

Mayer RE (1983). Can you repeat this? Qualitative effects of repetition and advanced organizers on learning from science prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75: 40-9.

 

Nudo RJ (2003). Adaptive plasticity in motor cortex: implications for rehabilitation after brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 41 Suppl: 7-10.  

 

Penfield W and Roberts L (1959). Speech and Brian Mechanisms (Princeton University Press: Princeton).

 

Scoville WB and Milner B (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 20: 11-21.

 

Tulving E (1972). ‘Episodic and semantic memory’ in E. Tulving and W. Donaldson (eds.) The Organization of Memory (pp382-403). (New York: Academic Press).  

 

Tulving E (1985). How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist, 40: 385-98.

 

Vicari S, Albertoni A, Chilos AM, Cipriani P, Cioni G and Bates E (2000). Plasticity and reorganization during language development in children with early brain injury. Cortex, 36 (1): 31-46.  

 

Vargha-Khadem E, Gadian DG, Watkins KE, Connelly A, Vann-Paesschon W and Mishkin M (1997). Differential effects of early hippocampal pathology on episodic and semantic memory. Science, 277: 376-79.

 

Warrington EK and Shallice T (1969). The selective impairment of auditory verbal short-term memory. Brain, 92: 885-96.

 

Wilding J and Valentine E (1994). Memory champions. British Journal of Psychology, 85:231-44.

Incongruent Stroop stimuli cause more task conflict than neutral stimuli: evidence from a within-participant design experiment

 

Abstract {119 words}

 

The Stroop condition has an interfering effect on colour recognition: the automatic tendency for individuals to read words and associate their meaning and visual characteristics cause task conflict. This study, using a within-participant design, provides statistical evidence to prove the hypothesis that individuals are able better to process ink colour when reading neutral words. 20 adult participants (11 male, 9 female; mean age=46.25; age range=30—60) are given two conditions: the Stroop (experimental) condition involving the colour recognition of 30 incongruent colour words, and the control condition, involving the colour recognition of neutral words. Results show that the Stroop effect causes a significant difference when compared with the neutral condition. The hypothesis was verified and the null hypothesis rejected.

 

 

Introduction {643 words}

 

The sensory organs have a vast amount of information to process, but not all of this can be assimilated at the same time: cognitive processing—that is to say, in this case, attention—is a selective mechanism. Or, perhaps, as Simons and Levin suggest (as cited in Edgar, 2007), attentional processing is one of limitation, and the brain acts as a ‘limited-capacity central processor’ (Kahneman, 1973).

 

In short, we cannot process everything. But these initial superstitions have lead to a number of subsequent questions and investigations. Many people today talk about the concept of multi-tasking (the brain doing two or more activities at the same time. This concept has been investigated by Posner and Boies (1971). They conducted a dual task experiment which involved participants performing a visual and an auditory task, and they found that individuals responded more slowly to the visual task when the auditory stimulus was heard at the same time.

 

McLeod (1977) amended the Posner and Boies experiment simply by asking participants to substitute the ideomotor response to the auditory tone with a verbalization of the word, ‘bip’. Results showed that reaction time was not slowed down when participants were required to perform two simultaneous functions in the same mode. They concluded that, when the responses were of the same mode (i.e. both being manual), there was inhibition, but, when the responses were separated (i.e. when they were manual and visual), inhibition diminished or disappeared.

 

Cognitive psychologists have been interested in exploring this aspect of attention for many years before these experiments of the 1970s. In the original Stroop test (Stroop, 1935), participants were asked to name the ink colour of certain words. It was found that, in general, participants’ reaction times to incongruent colour-words were slower than when compared with neutral stimuli. For example, participants reading yellow, written in red, would experience more interference when compared to the reading of a neutral word. This is known as the ‘interference effect’. Several years later, Dalrymple-Alford & Budayr, (1966) found that comparative reaction time was quicker when participants were asked to recall congruent colour words—for example, green written in green. This is known as the ‘facilitation effect’.

 

When an individual reads an incongruent colour word (such as red, written in yellow), the irrelevant word dimension contains conflicting information: two types of perception are working together side by side—conscious perception and unconscious perception. This contradiction is an informational conflict and suggests that people read words, to a certain extent, automatically (Goldfarb & Henik, 2007; Rogers & Monsell, 1995).

 

Recently, a number of studies has focussed on the Stroop effect and dual tasks in order to address more complex questions. Advances in functional brain imaging techniques have allowed neuroscientists to pinpoint specific areas of the brain and to monitor their activity while performing single or simultaneous tasks. MacDonald et al (2000) showed that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was active when naming colours while the anterior cingulated cortex, which seemed to act as an overriding monitoring mechanism, was actively engaged in response to incongruent stimuli.

 

MacLeod and MacDonald (2000) have supported this finding and added that both congruent and incongruent Stroop stimuli cause more task inhibition than neutral stimuli because of anterior cortex activation; Goldfarb and Henik (2007) investigated the behavioural expression for this pattern; and Anan, Liberman, Trope and Algom (2007) investigated a picture-word version of the Stroop test.       

There are certain psychological questions that are important to consider when undertaking a study of this kind. To what extent do individuals access information on a conscious and unconscious level? Why is automatic (and, indeed, autonomic) processing important in our every day lives? And, what are the benefits and drawbacks of automatic processing? It is beyond the scope of this study to answer these questions. However, this experiment, an adaptation of the original Stroop experiment (Stroop, 1935), will go one stage further to confirm the fact that incongruent stimuli cause more processing interference than neutral ones, and, in turn, this may add to our overall knowledge of unconscious and conscious processing.

 

Method {612 words}  

 

Design

 

A within-participants design was employed. The independent variable was the Stroop/Non Stroop Effect. The two conditions were as follows. Condition 1 involved participants naming the colours of incongruent words (words associated with a colour but written in an incongruent colour): this Stroop effect condition was the experimental condition. Condition 2, by contrast, involved participants naming the colours of neutral words (words not connected, universally, with a colour). This was the control condition.

A two-tailed experimental design was employed which assessed the hypothesis that the Stroop effect caused a significant difference to participants’ reaction time.  

 

Participants were asked to name the colour of the ink of 30 words written on a piece of A4. The words were written randomly in 6 different colours (red, orange, yellow, blue, green and purple); there were fifteen words in each of the two columns on the page. In order to avoid confounding variables with respect to the practise effect, participants in the odd numbered rows (1,3,5…) were given condition 1 first, followed by condition 2, while participants in the even rows (2, 4, 6…) worked vice versa. For both conditions, the researcher measured the total time each participant took to read the 30 words (the dependent variable). Results were measured to the nearest second. All the words were single syllable words—each of them was used five times—and, in addition, there were thirty words in each condition.  

 

Participants

The first sixteen participants in this study were colleagues, family and friends associated with the Psychology Department at the Open University, while the last four were the researcher’s personal colleagues—all teachers at a school in London (total n=20; 11 male, 9 female; mean age=46.25; age range=30—60).     

 

Materials

The researcher used a stopwatch to measure the total times to the nearest second. Each participant was given three pieces of paper. The first sheet showed the six possible colours—red, orange, yellow, blue, green and purple—and the second two sheets were the two conditions, each one containing 30 words in different coloured inks. There were 6 words in total and each one was repeated randomly 5 times (see Appendix 2). The researcher also printed out several copies of the consent from for participants to read and sign.   

 

Procedure

Each participant was asked whether they would be prepared to take part in a cognitive psychology experiment. All four colleagues were given consent forms which they all signed. The researcher gave brief details about the present research, that it was intended for an assignment for part of an Open University Course: he explained that the experiment involved colour recognition, but the precise nature of the test and the hypothesis were not given. Participants understood that their involvement was voluntary and that they had the right to withdraw at any time. Further, the researcher confirmed that their work was anonymous. To limit confounding variables, each participant was given exactly the same information before taking part in the experiment—no additional help or guidance was given to any one participant (see Appendix 1). Participants were tested individually. The researcher read the instruction verbatim. All participants said aloud the colour of the ink for each word and completed each test one after the after. Consistently, there was a one minute gap between intervals. Finally, the researcher provided each participant with a full debrief, discussing the precise nature of the project and theories associated with the Stroop effect.    

 

Results {163 words}

 

The research hypothesis in this project was that the participants’ reaction time would be slower in condition 1 when compared with condition 2. Times were measured to the nearest second (see Table 1). Out of the total number (n=20; see the results, Table 1), twelve participants completed condition 1 more slowly when compared to condition 2, while five were slightly faster and three were the same. The mean time score for condition 1 was 24.25 (SD=5.27); condition 2 was 21.75 (SD=5.866). In addition, a paired sample t-test was performed on these data, and this showed that the difference between these conditions was significantly different (t=2.471; df=19), the standard error mean being 1.012. There was also a strong positive correlation of 0.675 (see Graph 1), as measured by the Pearson Correlation Coefficient. There was a significant statistical difference in the results; the probability level (p=0.05; lower=0.382; upper=4.618) showed that the hypothesis (that the stroop effect delays reaction time) had been sustained, and the null hypothesis had been rejected.

 

Discussion {508 words}

 

The results in this study showed that there was a statistical difference between the Stroop condition and the control. When participants performed the experimental task, the anterior cingulated cortex (ACC) was more active when responding to incongruent stimuli (Bench et al, 1993), while the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was more active when naming ink colour (MacDonald et al, 2000). In short, individuals’ reaction time to visual stimuli varied when it was associated with other automatic functioning. This theory is in line with the comments made by Kahneman (1973) on the limited capacity of the central processor—the fact that we analyse information and unconsciously integrate stimuli with associations held in our memory. Indeed, MacLeod and MacDonald (2000) postulated that both congruent and incongruent Stroop stimuli cause more interference or inhibition than neutral stimuli.        

 

However, there was a number of confounding variables in this experiment that, in its present design, were unavoidable. The practise effect of doing both conditions simultaneously was limited due to the fact that the researcher counterbalanced the order of the experimental condition and the control. And yet, it seemed that the participants were working out the nature of the experiment throughout the exercise. Indeed, some participants commented that they were trying to work out which condition would hinder their reaction time. One participant said that his eye sight was failing and that, although he could read the words, he was able to ‘blank the meaning out’; it will remain unknown whether this was an unconscious or conscious process. Another participant was unsure whether he was supposed to read the words as quickly as possible or not, even though it was stated clearly on the instructions sheet. Indeed, after doing condition 1, he said that he would try reading the next group of words more quickly. Other confounding variables included the fact that some of the teachers had obviously read a fair amount of psychology and that they had a clear understanding, although they were not certain, about the precise nature of the experiment.

 

Nevertheless, the strong positive correlation (0.675) shows that the hypothesis is verified; 12 out of the 20 participants showed a marked delay in their reaction time in condition1 and the t score (t=2.471) confirms this. The mean score for condition 1 was 24.25 (SD=5.27); the mean for condition 2 was a faster 21.75 (SD=5.866).

 

Individuals have a direct experience associated with different stimuli, and this affects their respective construal of the stimulus. People will differ in the amount of high-level abstract mental representations required for cognitive tasks. Perhaps more studies into these differences are required. Further investigation could lead to an experiment which will attempt to analyze individuals’ reaction time to their favourite colour when compared with other colours. Additionally, it would be interesting to investigate whether colour recognition is delayed significantly when looking at shapes rather than words: a comparison could be made between these two stimuli.  

 

In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that the Stroop effect causes a significant reaction time delay when compared with the control. Individuals find it difficult to avoid responding to the associations of colour-words and this causes encoding interference.

 

 

TOTAL WORDS: 2045

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

 

Bar-Anan Y, Liberman N, Trope Y, Algom D (2007). ‘Automatic processing of psychological distance: evidence from a Stroop task’. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136 (4): 610-622.

 

Bench CJ, Frith CD, Grasby PM, Friston KJ, Paulesu E, Frackowiak RS, Dolan RJ (1993). ‘Investigations of the functional anatomy of attention using the Stroop test’. Neuropsychologia, 32:907-922.

 

Dalrymple-Alford EC, Budayr B (1966). ‘Examination of some aspects of the Stroop color-word test’. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 23:1211-1214.

 

DSE 212 (2007). Exploring Psychological Research Methods (Milton Keynes: Open University Press).

 

Edgar G (2007). ‘Perception and attention’. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix & K. Thomas (eds.) Mapping Psychology, pp. 3-50 (Open University: Milton Keynes).

 

Goldfarb L, Henik A (2007). ‘Evidence for task conflict in the stroop effect’. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 33 (5): 1170-1176.

 

Kahneman, D (1973). Attention and Effort. (Prentice-Hall: New Jersey).

 

MacDonald, AW III, Cohen JO, Stenger VA, Carter CS (2000). ‘Dissociating the role of dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulated cortex in cognitive control’. Science, 288: 1835-8.

 

MacLeod CM, MacDonald PA (2000). ‘Interdimensional interference in the Stroop effect: uncovering the cognitive and neural anatomy of attention’. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10: 383-391.

 

MacLeod PD (1977). ‘A dual task response modality effect: support for multi-processor models of attention’. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29: 83-9.

 

Posner MI, Boies SJ (1971). ‘Components of attention’. Psychological Review, 78 (5): 391-408. 

 

Rogers RD, Mansell S (1995). ‘Costs of predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks’. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124:207-231.

 

Stroop, JR (1935). ‘Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions’. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18 (6): 643-62.

 

 

 

Appendices {completed data set + the completed output from SPSS showing the results of the analysis}

 

Table 1

The following table shows the data collected from Chapter 7 of Exploring Psychological Research Methods (DSE212, 2007). These participants—either colleagues at the Open University, or family members and friends—were all given the appropriate consent forms and gave their consent to participate in this experiment. They were naïve to the specific hypothesis of the stroop effect, although they were debriefed at the end of the experiment. The last four lines, written in bold, are the results obtained by the author. 

Participant number	Age (years)	Sex (male/female)	Condition 1 time (seconds)	Condition 2 time (seconds)
1	36	Male	16	12
2	49	Female	23	25
3	49	Male	20	20
4	33	Male	14	14
5	30	Male	21	15
6	54	Female	27	28
7	55	Female	28	22
8	43	Female	17	19
9	50	Female	25	15
10	41	Female	20	20
11	47	Female	23	18
12	60	Male	31	33
13	35	Male	29	24
14	59	Male	25	22
15	58	Female	28	26
16	33	Male	28	24
17	40	Female	22	16
18	53	Male	34	25
19	42	Male	30	24
20	58	Male	24	33

Note 1: the data collected were measured to the nearest second.

Note 2: Participants (odd numbers) were given condition 1 and then condition 2 to complete, while the remaining even-numbered participants completed the test in the opposite order. 

 

Table 2

                                                    a) Paired Samples Statistics

 

 

		Mean	N	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean
Pair 1	ConditionOne	24.25	20	5.270	1.178
	ConditionTwo	21.75	20	5.866	1.312

 

                                                  b) Paired Samples Correlations

 

		N	Correlation	Sig.
Pair 1	ConditionOne & ConditionTwo	20	.675	.001

 

                                                c) Paired Samples Test

		Paired Differences					T	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
		Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
					Lower	Upper
Pair 1	Condition1 Condition2	2.500	4.525	1.012	.382	4.618	2.471	19	.023

 

 

                                                                       

Table 3

 

                   Bivariate Correlation of Conditions 1 & 2 using Pearson Correlation Coefficient

 

 

 

 

 

		Condition 1	Condition 2
Condition 1	Pearson Correlation	1	.675(**)
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.001
	N	20	20
Condition 2	Pearson Correlation	.675(**)	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.001
	N	20	20

**  Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Graph 1 showing a strong positive correlation:

 

                                                      ConditionTwo

 

Appendix 1: Instructions to Participants

 

‘In a moment, I will place a sheet of A4 paper in front of you that contains two columns of words. You will notice that the words are written in six different colours of ink—red, blue, green, yellow, orange and purple. What I would like you to do is say, out loud, the colour of the ink each word is written in. Start with the word at the top of the left column and work downwards. When you have finished all the words in the left column, start on the right column.

 

Remember, I do not want you to read the word itself to me; instead, I want you to state what colour of ink it has been written in. You should work through the list as quickly as you can.

 

To help you, here are some examples:

 

CHAIR

For the item above you would respond “blue”.

 

HOUSE

For the item above you would respond “red”.

Do you understand what you will be required to do?

(If yes, then proceed to task; if no, go through the examples again)’.

 

 

 

Appendix 2 (Materials): Colour Test Sheet and Two Conditions

 

 

 

Red
Orange
Yellow
Blue
Green
Purple

Red = “Red”

Orange = “Orange”

Blue = “Blue”

Purple = “Violet”

Green = “Green”

Yellow = “Yellow”

b) Condition 1

 

SKY		PLUM
PLUM		BLOOD
LEMON		LEMON
GRASS		GRASS
CARROT		BLOOD
BLOOD		SKY
PLUM		CARROT
CARROT		LEMON
SKY		PLUM
GRASS		GRASS
BLOOD		CARROT
LEMON		SKY
CARROT		BLOOD
GRASS		LEMON
SKY		PLUM

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

c) Condition 2

 

STY		PLAN
PLAN		BLAME
LEDGE		LEDGE
GRADE		GRADE
CAREER		BLAME
BLAME		STY
PLAN		CAREER
CAREER		LEDGE
STY		PLAN
GRADE		GRADE
BLAME		CAREER
LEDGE		STY
CAREER		BLAME
GRADE		LEDGE
STY		PLAN

Dear Sir

I read ‘Either/Or’ and various Kierkegaard when I was at school and got really into it. Oli and I used to rush to the library after our philosophy class in order to look up some of the theories that our teacher had talked about. I also read Nietzsche too. What I found fascinating is that many of us live in society and are bound by societies rules and modes of action. I began to challenge these rules and to think more liberally about rules and laws. I realized very early that living a purely hedonistic or anarchic life would only cause me problems. I found that becoming aware of your personal freedom, one only realizes what one can’t do. However, I have lived my life challenging perceptions which are just accepted by some people. Indeed, there seems to be a collective conscious book of laws that even bridges across from culture to culture. I challenge these.

 

The thought that humans are basically alone in the world is very negative. And, I don’t agree. Existential therapists feel that it is are connection with others that makes are lives bearable. So, we are not alone. Existential therapist would disagree with me there, and say that the search for meaning and contentment must come from inside rather than from others. I disagree with this fundamentally. However. in Albert Camus’  ‘L’Etranger’, the protagonist (hero/anti-hero) does reject his pre-existing theories on human existence and morality, and invents his own, subjective modus vivendi.

 

Subjectivity is at the heart of this philosophy. The concept of the ‘good life’ is something that I have had in the back of my mind since I learnt about this philosophy at school. It means that one is prepared and has the courage to lead one’s own life and take responsibility for the consequences. One creates meanings for one’s self. By creating and asking questions; by building and enjoying one’s own-crafted adventure, one is happy in fulfilling one’s own personalized potential.

 

During existential therapy, clients are encouraged to feel that their lives our coincidental and attention is focussed on the present. One begins to have a more dissociative idea about one choices in life, and one becomes freer to make choices. By accepting that one has no destiny, the idea is that one may become more accepting about life and the freedom of choice.

 

 

In the business world, companies use non-disclosure agreements (NDA) or confidentiality agreements (CA), as well as confidential disclosure agreement forms (CDA) and proprietary information agreements (PIA). These are legal documents between companies: these documents list confidential material and information that that must not be shared with one another.

 

In psychotherapy, there are no such documents but there is a rule that is understood by both therapist and client that everything he says will not be passed on to any other person. In fact, I do say on my application form that all information is kept in the strictest of confidence. I explain to my clients that confidentiality is extremely important and that all their notes and personally details are kept under lock and key. This is of paramount importance because during therapy, many individuals give information about their unconscious desires and inner conflicts and of this information is given to a third party it could have a disastrous effect on an individual’s well being and trust of their therapist.

 

In 1996, the United States Supreme Court in Jaffe v. Redmond 518 U.S. 1 ruled against the disclosure of a psychotherapist’s notes. The court explained doctors treat physical ailments objectively. By contrast,

‘Effective psychotherapy depends upon an atmosphere of confidence in which the patient trusts the psychotherapist’s commitment and capacity to protect their frank and complete disclosure of facts, emotions, memories and fears’.

 

However, I do point out that on occasions, some material is helpful for other clinicians and that, from time to time, I publish information in academic journals. Clients still have anonymity. No names are mentioned—in fact, a pseudonym is always used—and names of places, and recognizable features of home life are not specified. For example, If a lady called Sophie went to the University of East London and met her boyfriend, Bill, who was also studying chemistry in year 3 of the degree course, and I needed to include this in the study because it was important to the case material, I would probably write something like the following:

‘ Sandra went to meet her boyfriend at the university: they were both doing the same course and were both in their final year’.

 

In the past, it used to be necessary to write to clients’ GPs after the first session; and, in many instances, clients would be referred by GPs in the first place. Nowadays, it is up to the client whether he wants his GP to know or not, and if this is the case, a signed consent form is needed.

 

There are exceptions to this confidentiality rule. If it becomes apparent that the client or a member of the family is being abused and that the appropriate steps have not been taken by the client to resolve this issue, therapists must explain to their clients that they have a moral and ethical obligation to pursue this. In these instances, I would explain that, now I am aware of this information, and know that nothing is being done to stop this abuse, I need to deal with this in the appropriate manner. Indeed, if legal proceedings occur, I might have to break confidentiality; however, again, I can only do this once the consent forms have been signed and dated. There are some other exceptional circumstances where confidentiality should be broken, and this refers to a situations in which the client or acquaintance is in mortal danger. In these instances, it is always advisable for therapist to speak to their professional body—specifically the ethics committee—and ask them for their advice in this situation.

 

Gregory Bateson has been an extremely influential figure on 20^th century philosophy, specifically with regard to social anthropology, linguistics, visual anthropology, semiotics, cybernetics, psychiatry and therapy. He spent some time in New Guinea observing and analyzing behaviour patterns in different cultures. I think that it help to analyze completely different cultures in this process because one can look at the correlation between speech, tone of voice and body language without too much of a bias. I am not sure about this therapy but he did spend a huge amount of time analyzing communication and interaction between people.

I should briefly like to mention two theories of his which I have found to be very helpful in my work as a psychotherapist and then I would like to expand on one particular theory.

 

His theory of the ‘vicious circle’ is very important. He points out that there is a vicious circle in communication, and that behaviour produces a reaction which, in turn, produces a subsequent behaviour from the interlocutor. Therefore the behaviour of X affects Y and he reacts in a certain way; then, Y behaves in a certain away and this is followed by X behaving in a certain fashion. Two presupposition of NLP take on board this theory—(1) ‘we calibrate on behaviour’, and (2) ‘words are not what they represent’ (Brookhouse, 2012).

Symmetrical relationships are also very important. He pointed out that there are two types of relationships:

Symmentrical relationships which involve people who are equals although competitive.

Complementary relationships in which there is unequal balance (eg the dominance-submission type between parent and child; or exhibition/spectatorship type between performer and audience).

 

Brookhouse S (2012). Conference presentation at the National College of Hypnosis and Psychotherapy. 25 March 2012.  

 

Double Binds       

Bateson studied with Donald Jackson, Jay Haley and John Weakland in the 1950s and did a huge amount of pioneering work on schizophrenia and its aetiology. They described the concept of ‘double binds’ and said how destructive this was to the development of a child’s behaviour. The pointed out that it a child was consistently given double binds by mother or father (or both) during development, he would then begin to construct the world out of contradictory cues and emotional messages. From the reading that I have done into the aetiology of neurosis, I have found that the double bind has a hugely negative effect on child development and one’s ability to act authentically in adult life. One only has to go back to the work of BF Skinner to remember the stress that was caused to the rat who came to a junction knowing that, although he received conditioning through the sense of smell that both doors could contain food, that  one door had food and the other didn’t. This caused anxiety. Wolpe (1958) also spoke of the manipulative nature of double binds in the context of the family.

I am sure that most here already know this term. But for the few that don’t, this is my definition. A double bind occurs when, normally, an authority figure—say, a parent, boss or teacher—gives mixed messages to his or her interlocutor. This person becomes a victim because he is unable to leave the communication field and he knows that either failing to fulfil one of the requests will result in punishment of some kind, or failure to believe that one of the statements is true will resilt in a misattunement of what is being said or displayed.

 

Examples of this are as follows:

1. The mother tells her daughter that she loves her but her face shows hatred or indifference.

2. Father to daughter: ‘You must take the rubbish out in the pouring rain, but only if you want to’.

3. Mother to son: ‘You must love me’.

4. Teacher to pupil: ‘Speak when you are spoken to’; and in the next instance, ‘Don’t talk back!’.

5. Father to son: ‘I am very angry with you—[with a big smile on his face] come here an give me a cuddle’.

In these instances, the victim is unable to define the paradoxical situation, and is unable to confront or resolve the conflict internal or externally. Thus, there is an entanglement of communication. The words, tone of voice and body language are not in sync with each other.

 

This theory is very helpful for us as psychotherapists because we can use positive double binds in order to provide choice in the consulting room. And, if one uses double binds and the apposition of opposites, as well as a response set one can really help clients to move on and reduce resistance in the therapy and in the hypnosis.

 

Here are some example of positive double binds. In fact, many NLP trained therapists do not know the origins of this term and call all ‘positive double binds’ simply ‘double binds’. But psychoanalysts, quite rightly I think, place a huge amount on the destructive nature of this in the family context.

 

Here are some examples:

 

1. Therapist to client/patient: ‘Would you like to feel completely comfortable and relaxed on that chair or the other chair’.

2. Therapist to client while encouraging time distortion: ‘ Did it seem a very long time to you or just sort of a really long time to you?’.

3. Therapist to client: ‘Are you ready to give up smoking now or in a few moments time?’.

“Beneath the social mask we wear every day, we have a hidden shadow side: an impulsive, wounded, sad, or isolated part that we generally try to ignore. The Shadow can be a source of emotional richness and vitality, and acknowledging it can be a pathway to healing and an authentic life. We meet our dark side, accept it for what it is, and we learn to use its powerful energies in productive ways. The Shadow knows why good people sometimes do “bad” things. Romancing the Shadow and learning to read the messages it encodes in daily life can deepen your consciousness, imagination, and soul.” (Jung, ref. published in 1958).

 

I would like to focus on ‘authentic living’. Being authentic in how we feel, think and behave is the key to happiness, and the happiness of others. How am I going to justify this? Well, I will start by looking at the behaviour of children at a young age. They have not been taught how to behave in different situations—how to behave with babies, in church, at the doctors, in school, when in trouble, when someone is hurt, on holiday, when meeting someone for the first time, when someone has done something wrong. There thousands of other examples that I might give here. They are conditioned and taught in order to suppress many of their feelings and behaviours. In regard to social identity theory (Henri Tajfel and John Turner), we, many of us, form our identity from perceived membership of a social group. However, we all have identities that are moveable and we act differently in different situations. Perhaps, the more we act in a certain way, the more we are repressing. Put in another way, the more we act, the more we push towards the shadow.

There are some people I know who act like teachers. They have been taught to be teachers, and they have been conditioned to act like teachers. They have done this for so long that they are unable to think or act or behave like themselves. They are lost in their social world, and they have lost touch with their real, instinct self. They wear a teacher mask (a social mask). One can apply this principle to politicians, soldiers, bank managers, born again Christians, and all sorts of different types of people who act within a social format in their home environment. There are some therapists who do this do.

 

On the first day on the stage 2, Shaun said that, as therapists, we must keep it real. This is 100 percent. We need to explore our shadow, and notice the difference between our pleasure seeking self, our childlike self, and our repressed acting self’. Although that was quite Jungian—incidentally, for a period of over twelve years, he gave pseudonyms to different parts of his body, real of spiritual–using Jungian terminology, we need to know difference between our shadow, our ego and our persona. That sounds difficult to me. Perhaps I could explain it better using Freudian language. If the shadow represents a place where we house our repressed thoughts, feelings and behaviour mechanisms, we need to bring this to the fore—from the pre-conscious into the conscious—come to terms with these internal conflicts and to act on them in order to take care of ourselves, and our needs.

 

Once we have brought some of this material to the fore, we can be in tune with ourselves and understand ourselves much better—including knowing our intrinsic needs and desires. This will help us to behave, feel and think more authentically as therapists or clients, but most importantly in our everyday lives. The powerful energy that we gain from this investigation, will help us all to take care of ourselves in an appropriate (Jung calls it ‘productive’) way.

Having imagination is an essential part of being a ‘good hypnotic subject’. However, what defines this? Is it one’s ability to visualize and to take on board the suggestions of the therapist, or is it one’s skill in being able to create images and to adapt them appropriately. Consider this as a theory. We all have the equal imagination and it is just a question of tapping into these resources—be they visual, gustatory, olfactory, auditory, kinaesthetic or emotional

 

Further, what is intelligence and how does one measure it? Standard IQ tests measure one form of intelligence with a criteria for this formulation but it excludes other important intelligences such as kinaesthetic-dominant intelligence, and creative thinking intelligence.

And why is it important for someone to be highly hypnotizable. I don’t want a debate about low, medium and deep state trance (e.g. Cardeña, 2005), but, if my work with visualization anything to go by, one can do a great deal of effective work without the need of a formal induction and/or deepener. Using naturalistic induction can also produce a deep state. Whether a deep state helps the efficacy of the therapy is debatable.  

Self Esteem

Self esteem is a fundamental mechanism that helps individuals to maintain inner balance. It is what emcompasses our core belief system and our sense of welling being, our confidence and inner abilities in isolation and in social settings. Our self concept is a descriptive set of constructs. For example:

 

I am a good mother

I am confident

I am caring

 

Self esteem is so important for maintaining and living a happy life. Maslow pointed out that the central core of one self image can be maintained and balance if one is accepted, loved and respected by others. This respect, ideally, should come from members of one’s family, a significant partner, and at work. If one feels this natural place within society and at home one is able to self-actualize. Absence of these fundamental mechanisms can cause distress, and self-defeating mechanisms. Sometimes when I work with clients, I get the impression that they have never been given adequate love or a place in society and that it needs to start in the consulting room. People also need to be cared for with the appropriate food and water and need to feel safe. See (Maslow’s pyramid).      

I have never included testimonials on my website and certainly intend never to add these to any advertising campaign. In fact, there are many websites that publish testimonials and the problem with these is that they are unverifiable and breach confidentiality. Whether the client mind or not about this is irrelevant. The fact is that by writing something on your website their confidentiality has been breached. At some later date, they may regret having given you permission to publish their thoughts and feelings to the rest of the world. They might also feel embarrassed that certain friends of theirs, or business acquaintances/work colleagues might find out that they have seen a therapist and this might cause problems both at home and amongst friends and family but also at work. The ramifications of this are endless.

  

As a professional psychotherapist, I am in a position of responsibility, and I maintain all my clients full anonymity and confidentiality. I will also adhere to the ethical code of the UKCP.