If you would like to find a therapist in London, why not ring London Hypnotherapy UK. Here, you will find highly qualified therapists who have been trained to use hypnosis as an adjunct to therapy.

 

David Kraft is a psychotherapist who uses hypnosis in treatment to enhance his work. Hypnosis is a tool to be used in conjunction with psychotherapy, CBT, medical or dental work.

 

David Kraft is a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and a member of the British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis (BSCAH).

 

If you would like help in finding a therapist, please call 0207 467 8564, for an appointment.

 

David Kraft

Psychotherapist and Hypnotherapist

 

For more information about BSCAH, please go to their website at http://www.bscah.com/

Finding a therapist in London can be hard work, so it is often helpful to go to a recognized organization in order find a suitable therapist who can help you. London Hypnotherapy UK recommends UKCP and BSCAH.

The Central Nervous System and Human Behaviour

 

The following report provides a basic introduction to the central nervous system and how it affects behaviour. There are two communication systems—the central nervous system (CNS) and the hormonal system. Part 1 describes neuronal communication in the CNS, while Part 2 illustrates how human behaviour—mood, emotion, motivation, aggression and ideomotor control—is affected by neuronal systems in the brain.

 

Neurons are cells which transmit and process information. There are two main components of the neuron—the ‘cell body’, which contains the nucleus, and a long extension called ‘a process’. Neurons are found throughout the body. Neuronal transmission can be subdivided into two discrete structures—the central nervous system (CNS), which represents the largest part of the nervous system, and the peripheral nervous system, which controls the communication of neurons outside the CNS. The CNS, contained within the dorsal cavity, comprises the brain (cranial cavity) and the spinal cord (spinal cavity).

 

Toates (2007) describes basic neuronal activity in the context of a simple reflex reaction.  He points out that, when someone’s foot comes into contact with a sharp object, the neurons at the skin’s surface act as detectors, and, once stimulated, an electrical-chemical reaction takes place while messages are immediately directed towards the spinal cord and onto the brain.

 

In this example, for a split second, there is a significant increase in electrical activity in the foot—viz., the amount of voltage in a certain number of neurons in the skin of the foot has increased. The sudden change in electrical excitation, and its return to a base value, is called action potential. Action potentials travel incredibly quickly. These neurons, which convey information to the CNS through the spinal cord and then on to the brain, are sensory neurons: the brain then interprets the messages as pain. These messages, in most cases, will lead to an appropriate motor response—i.e., the person will take his foot away from the offending object. The action potential in this neuron will initiate muscle movement. These neurons are known as motor neurons.

 

Neurons communicate information through the synapse—a minute gap between cells. This is known as synaptic transmission. In this process, where one neuron passes on information to another neuron, the first neuron (‘sending neuron’) is known as the pre-synaptic neuron, while the second (‘receiving neuron’) is referred to as the post-synaptic neuron. It is important to note that, although the transmission of information in the brain is electrical, neuronal communication is a chemical conduction (Toates, 2007). When the action potential reaches the synapse, it releases neurotransmitters (chemical transmitter substances) which move across the synaptic cleft and interact with the specific receptors in the post-synaptic membrane (Kalat, 2000).

The chemical change at the synapse can be excitatory or inhibitory. In the first instance, excitation, there is an increased possibility of the post-synaptic neuron to exhibit action potential. However, a neurotransmitter can display inhibition; here, the second cell is less likely to show action potentials and there is a suppression of activity. One needs to be cautious when making assumptions about the link between psychological processing and neurochemical activity; nevertheless, biologically-orientated psychologists (for example, Toates, 2001; Stevens, 1996; Lefkowitz, Caron and Stiles, 1984) believe that, to a certain extent, our mood, emotion, action, motivation and body regulation are controlled by, and inextricably interconnected with, the neuronal pathways in the CNS. And, further, some reductionist biological psychologists, for example Crick (1994), believe that all psychological events can be explained in the context of neurochemical activity.

 

More importantly, changes in synaptic activity and neuronal function can cause one’s behaviour, mood or cognitive function to be altered. The main neurotransmitter systems are the noradrenaline system, the serotonin system and the cholinergic system. Thus, alcohol and cocaine alter synaptic activity—they interfere with cognitive functioning. Some people, having drunk large quantities of alcohol, suffer memory loss, while others loose their inhibitions, and perform acts which would be previously feared. Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine and leaves the neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap for a longer period of time. Cocaine users experience a ‘high’ when influenced by the drug; however, the dopamine depletion after a period of time can lead to an acute, but transitory, depression (Toates, 2007).

 

Prozac, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) blocks the reuptake of the serotonin being taken back into the neuron from which it was released, thus increasing its activity at the receptors. It is important to note that, like the monoamine neurotransmitters (MAOIs) and the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), prolonged use of SSRIs may not be effective and can lead to homeostasis or even down regulation (Sampson, 2001; Leykin, Amsterdam, DeRubeis et al, 2007). Nevertheless, antidepressants have continued to be used in the treatment of depression and, to some extent, monoamine neurotransmitter abnormalities—be they dopaminergic, serotonergic or noradrenergic—are involved in and related to depressive syndromes (McNeal and Cimbolic, 1986). Further, extreme stress and prolonged hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis mediated dysfunction can lead to depression and a downstream of pathophysiological self-regulation (Anisman and Zacharko, 1982; Mello, Mello, Carpenter and Price, 2003). 

 

Finally, in addressing the question, ‘how human behaviour is mediated by the nervous system’, having given some examples pertaining to neural regulation and transmission, it is important to clarify and draw attention to two branches of the CNS—namely, (1) the somatic nervous system (SNS) and (2) the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SNS is responsible for and controls skeletal muscles and voluntary behaviour. The neurons of (normally) the frontal cortex communicate with the motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system, causing muscle contraction (Toates, 2007). Any damage to the frontal cortex due to cerebrovascular accidents or severe head injury can lead to impaired motor control.    

 

By contrast, the ANS is connected with involuntary, unconscious movement and response. The ANS controls emotion (crying, laughing), the production of saliva, breathing, heart rate, sweating amongst other things.  Stress, again, can cause fatty substances to sit in our circulatory pathways, producing high levels of cortisol and increased heart rates (Toates, 2007). As a result, in these situations, people sweat and get increasingly anxious: these physiological responses are all the result of autonomic,   defensive mechanisms.

Essay References

 

Anisman H & Zacharko RM (1982). Depression: the predisposing influence of stress. The Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 5: 89-137.

 

Crick F (1994). The astonishing hypothesis: the scientific search for the soul (London: Simon & Schuster).

 

Kalat, JW (2000). Biological Psychology  (Pacific Grove: California/Brooks Cole). 

 

Lefkowitz RJ, Caron MC, Stiles GL (1984). Mechanisms of membrane-receptor regulation. Biological, physiological and clinical insights derived from studies of the adrenergic receptors. New England Journal of Medicine, 310: 1570-79.

 

Leyton Y, Amsterdam  JD, DeRubeis RJ, Gallop R, Shelton RC & Hollon SD (2007). Progressive resistance to a selective serotonin inhibitor but not to cognitive therapy in the treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75 (2): 267-276. 

 

McNeal ET & Cimbolic P (1986). Antidepressants and biochemical theories of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 99 (3): 361-374.

 

Mello AAF, Mello MF, Carpenter LL & Prive LH (2003. Update on stress and depression: the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis (HPA) axis. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 25 (4): 231-38.

 

Sampson SM (2001). Treating depression with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a practical approach. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 76 (7): 739-44.  

 

Toates, F (2007). Biological processes and psychological explanation. In D Miell, A Phoenix & K Thomas (eds.) Mapping Psychology: Book 1 Introduction and Chapters 1-5 (Milton Keynes: Open University Press): 225-283.

 

Part 2: Methods Exercises

 

Question 1

(a) The control for perceived harmfulness—the fact that all the creatures were harmless and were found injured in the wild—was not entirely successful, because most participants considered rats as potentially threatening, injured or not.

 

(b) The two variables were (1) ‘Ugliness’ (a subjective mean score of how ugly the animals were), and (2) ‘Rated Distance’, (how far away the participants would keep away from the animal).

 

(c)

(i) The scatterplot shows that there is a strong correlation coefficient.

 

(ii)  As the value of the variable on the x-axis increases, generally, the value of the variable on the y axis increases.

 

(iii) Generally, the more ugly the animal, the greater distance, on average, participants would stay away from each animal. Note ugliness was measured on subjective responses from individuals on a scale from 1-10 (1=least ugly; 10=most ugly). 

 

(d) 0.723 is a strong correlation coefficient.

 

(e) The researcher would design a field experiment. In the first instance, he would ask a veterinary surgeon permission to use five injured/sedated animals for an experiment and would position these animals in the centre of a small forest. The researcher would then, one by one, measure the participants’ willingness to approach each animal (in metres).  Each participant, having approached each animal will be required to rate each animal on ugliness. This will be done using a scale from 1-10 (1=least ugly; 10=most ugly). Each test will be recorded at the same time each day, and each animal will show no movement. Rats will not be used in the experiment.      

 

 

 

Question 2

(a)

(i) This experiment is a ‘Between-Participants Design’.

 

(ii) The ‘Within-Participants Design’, also called ‘repeated measures’, is an experiment which requires each participant to take part in two separate conditions; the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin (1969) experiment cited measures the occurrence of altruism in 103 different trials on the 8^th Avenue in New York. Different participants are involved in each trial. This is an independent sample design.   

 

(b) The participants were the passengers travelling on the subway.

 

(c)  The dependent variable is the number of participants who helped the victims on each occasion. The researchers measured this variable to see how it was affected by the independent variable. Perhaps, a suitable label would be, ‘level of altruism’. 

 

(d) Non-intrusive female observers recorded whether or not one or more passengers helped them (although the text intimates that passengers were either helped or not at all).

 

(e) The independent variable is the type of victim—an apparently disabled person or a person pretending to be drunk. A suitable label would be, ‘disabled/drunk’.

 

(f) This was a random allocation exercise.

 

(g) Other independent variables that could be considered would be correlation between altruism and race—that is to say, the likelihood of people helping an African American versus a Caucasian American. 

 

(h) The researchers did not consider any distress or inconvenience that this might have caused the unknowing participants. No feedback was given, and this might have affected some participants’ willingness to travel on the subway in the future. 

 

Question 3

(a) The researchers controlled the experiment by randomly allocating the children to groups, but by telling them that they were assigned to a specific group for a reason—that is to say, that they preferred abstract painting A or B. 

 

(b) All the children were the same age (aged 10-11).

 

(c)

(i) The fact that one school was a mixed independent school and the other was a girls’ school could be a confounding variable.

 

(ii) There were, probably, more girls in the experiment than boys. Some girls might have favoured responses from girls in both schools (over the boys in one school). In addition, some pupils might have favoured students’ responses from their own school over the other school.

 

(iii) The researchers could design two separate experiments—the first for the mixed school, and the second for the girls’ school.

 

(d)

(i) Pupils could favour the responses from pupils in their own school.

 

(ii) Again, the researchers would reduce confounding data by limiting each experiment to one school.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Identity.

 

The purpose of this report is to describe two different methods that have been used to investigate identity—(1) The Twenty Statements Test (Kuhn and McPartland, 1954) and (2) Marcia’s Semi-Structured Identity Status Interview (Marcia, 1966, 1980, 1994). Essentially, this report is in two parts: part 1 describes the two different methods, placing them in context, and part 2 discusses the importance of these approaches to our understanding of identity.

 

Methods: The Twenty Statements Test and Marcia’s Semi-Structured Identity Status Interview

 

Since William James’ psychological theories of identity and self consciousness (James, 1890), many researchers have devised methods and theories further to explain the concept of identity. Important theories include: (1) The Psychosocial Theory (Erikson, 1956, 1968; Marcia, 1966), (2) Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986; Turner, 1982) and (3) Social Constructionism (Gergen, 1999). Although not associated with the identity theories above, the Twenty Statements Test (TST) is a useful tool for researchers investigating identity. Here, participants are given 12 minutes to jot down their individual responses to the question, ‘Who am I?’ They are required to answer the question 20 times. It was found that participants taking part in the experiment revealed simple, important facts about themselves, such as age, gender, marital status, as well as more complex, subtle insights into their personality, such as information about self image or personal belief systems. Answers can be categorised as follows:

 

(1) Physical Self (height, hair colour)

(2) Social Rôle (footballer, student)

(3) Personality (kind, sensitive)

(4) Existential (religious, human being)

 

The categorisation of these answers has been modified by many researchers and reviewers (Montemayer and Eisen, 1977; Miell, Phoenix and Thomas, 2007).

 

James Marcia’s Semi-Structured Interview is inextricably linked to the Psychosocial Theory of identity. Like Erikson, Marcia focused his attention on adolescence (Erickson’s fifth psychosocial stage) and devised a questionnaire which was intended to analyse the changing nature of adolescents’ self identity. Marcia restricted his studies to male college students (aged 18-25) until the 1970s. Typically, the semi-structured interviews would last between 15-30 minutes and followed the same overall outline, although derivations were allowed in order to explore areas more thoroughly. These interviews were designed to examine particular themes, but the confederate experimenters—usually psychology students on the campus—were allowed to change the order of the questions, and this flexibility enabled them to pursue important ideas and concepts (Miell, Phoenix and Thomas, 2007). In addition, because the interviews were taped, the experimenters were able to make the process more conversational. Once all the information was collated, Marcia would then construct a scoring manual and each participant would be evaluated against the criteria. Thus, this approach is both quantitative, in its coding of participants’ comments and analysing percentages of answers, and qualitative, in the identifying of general themes and overriding conceptions. Marcia focused on adolescents’ commitment and crises levels associated with jobs, politics, sexuality, religion, relationships and ideology.

 

Comments

 

The TST is a subjective approach for analysing identity, and it continues to be used today in various modified forms. After posing this simple question, participants, having responded with various answers which correspond to their own physical appearance or social rôle, may begin to question or recall their own personal experience and rôle in society. This approach is firmly in the hermeneutic tradition.

 

Of course, answers may depend on age. Montemayer and Eisen (1977) found that the TST revealed significant differences between age groups. For example, 9 year-olds tended to limit their answers to physical descriptions (‘I am thin’/’I wear bright clothes’) and likes and dislikes (‘I like dogs’/‘I hate opera’). Older children, in their answers, addressed social rôles (‘I am a team rep’) and personality (‘I am generous’). However, older teenagers (17-18 year olds) included information which was related to an abstract world (‘I am atheist’). Further, the older the children, the more they seemed to qualify their answers; for example, a seventeen year-old girl might state that she, ‘is usually generous unless [she] is tired’. Kuhn and McPartland (1954) found that the TST revealed answers which enabled them to draw conclusions about the self concepts of different age groups.

 

The TST is a simple approach which can also help the participant to analyse himself in isolation or in a social context. Thus, this method is introspectionist. It enables the researcher quickly to gain access to the participants’ identity and self esteem using the client’s own words. There is also the possibility of using this approach in a clinical setting. For example, a skilled psychologist may, when working with someone suffering from low self esteem, be able to draw out associations related to the client’s social identity.

 

Marcia’s Semi-Structured Interview has been modified many times and, perhaps, is the most well-known approach used by researchers in the study of identity (Kroger, 2000). Although the task experimenters follow the same outline, the flexibility of the approach—that is to say, the changing of the order and the qualifying remarks from the students—make it possible for the interjudge to gain some insight into the participants’ intrinsic identities and belief systems. For example, in the study by Marcia in 1966, a sample question in the occupational area was:

 

How willing do you think you’d be to give up going into_______if something better came along? (Marcia, p553)

 

Students qualified their answers, and the analyst categorised them into four statuses: (1) ‘Identity Achievement’ (subject committed to an occupation and ideology after crises), (2) ‘Moratorium’ (subject in a crisis period; vague), (3) ‘Foreclosure’ (subject not having experienced crisis; lack of belief; still fulfilling parents’ goals) and (4) ‘Identity Diffusion’ (subject has lack of commitment). A great deal of information about personal/social identity can be taken from one or two terse responses. Sample answers to the above question were as follows:

 

[Identity Achievement] Well, I might, but I doubt it. I can’t see what “something better” would be for me.

[Moratorium] I guess if I knew for sure I could answer that better. It would have to be something in the general area—something related.

[Foreclosure] Not very willing. It’s what I’ve always wanted to do. The folks  are happy with it and so am I.

[Identity Diffusion] Oh sure. If something better came along, I’d change just like that. (Marcia, p553)

 

Although this approach is time consuming and focuses on personal identity without giving much thought to the individuals’ rôle in a social context, the Semi-Structured Interview is a useful tool for analysing personal identity.

 

WORD COUNT: 999 (excluding references and headings)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References for Part 1

 

DSE 212 (2007). Exploring Psychological Research Methods (Milton Keynes: Open University Press).

 

Erikson EH (1956). The problem of ego identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4: 56-121.

 

Erikson E (1968). Identity, Youth and Crisis (New York: WW Norton & Co.).

 

Gergen K (1999). An Invitation to Social Construction (London: Sage)

 

James W (1890). Principles of Psychology (New York: Holt).

 

Kroger J (2000). Ego identity status research in the new millennium. International Journal for the Study of Behavioral Development, 24 (2): 145-8.

 

Kuhn MK, McPartland S (1954). An empirical investigation of self attitudes. American Sociological Review, 19: 68-76.

 

Marcia JE (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3: 551-8.

 

Marcia J (1980). Identity in adolescence, in J Adelson (ed.) Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (New York: Wiley).

 

Marcia J (1994). The empirical study of ego identity, in H Bosma, T Graafsma, H Grotevant and D de Levita (eds.) Identity and Development: an Interdisciplinary Approach (London: Sage).

 

Miell D, Phoenix A, Thomas K (2007). Mapping Psychology: Book 1 Introduction and Chapters 1-5 (Milton Keynes: Open University Press).

 

Montemayer R, Eisen M (1977). The development of self conceptions from childhood to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 13 (3): 314-9.

 

Tajfel H, Turner JC (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour, in  S Worchel and LW Austin (eds.) Psychology of Intergroup Relations (Chicago: Nelson-Hall).

 

Turner JC (1982). Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group, in H Tajfel (ed.) Social Identity and Intergroup Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

 

 

 

 

Part 2: Ethics Questions

 

Scenario 1

 

Question 1

 

No. The proposed investigation raises ethical concerns. Psychologists, including students, have an obligation to uphold professional standards, and here, they make no attempt to explain the nature of the research to the children. The BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (British Psychological Society, 2006) states that participants should be given, ‘ample opportunity to understand the nature, purpose, and…consequences of any…research participation’ (1.3 i). Consent forms were not mentioned (1.3 ii). There is a case, however, for observing individuals in public if they would, ‘reasonably expect to be observed by strangers…[and] believe they are unobserved’ (1.3 ix). However, no consent had been given from the Headteacher or the parents either.

 

WORD COUNT (excluding numbers and the one reference): 99

 

Question 2

 

The following proposal is a revised version of the original: it follows the principle tenets of the original observational approach while upholding the standards of ethical decision making—particularly informed consent (1.1 i; 1.3 xii; 3.3 i)—set by the BPS (British Psychological Society, 2006).

 

Stage 1

 

All students should explain to the Headteacher the purpose of the study and obtain written permission to carry out the observation (1.3 i).

 

Stage 2

 

The students should then write a detailed consent form (1.2 i; 1.2 ii; 1.3 i) for the parents to sign: this document should confirm: (1) the aims , (2) that no recordings will be taken (1.2 x), (3) that they will respect anonymity, (4) that any parent has the right to withdraw his/her child from the experiment (3.3 vi; 1.4 iii) and (5) that no financial compensation will be given (4.2 iv).

 

CRB checks received, they can proceed at a designated time, providing they make no contact with the children (4.2 i), that they wear school passes, and that members of staff are in situ. Feedback will be given (3.4 i).

 

 

WORD COUNT: 143

 

 

Scenario 2

 

Question 1

 

This study focuses on the influence of models on impressionable adolescents. Here, in order to use direct quotations from young people, Susie should have spoken to the adolescents, asking them whether they would be happy to participate or help with her research (1.3 i). With the appropriate consent forms, she would then be able to tape the conversation. Alternatively, she could devise a number of questions, akin to Marcia’s Semi-Structured Identity Interview (Marcia, 1966), which would focus on self-stereotyping and adolescent ideals. Again, Susie must make sure that she receives consent forms (1.3 ii) and explains the nature of the intended research (1.3 i).

 

WORD COUNT: 96

 

Reference to Question 1

 

Marcia JE (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3: 551-8.

 

Question 2

 

Quotations are useful for hermeneutic analysis; however, it is important to ensure the participants’ anonymity (1). The postgraduate researcher would be well advised to change all the names of the participants and remove any text or clues which might identify one of the students (DSE212, p34)

 

WORD COUNT: 44

 

Reference to Questions 2

 

DSE 212 (2007). Exploring psychological Research Methods (Milton Keynes: Open University Press).

 

Question 3

 

This study investigates the damaging effect of models on impressionable teenagers and the rise of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. First, researchers will ask students whether they would like to be involved in the study, obtain consent forms (1.3 ii) and explain the purpose of the study (1.3 i). Researchers will then allocate twenty adolescents (10 girls, 10 boys; age 15-16) to two groups. Each group will comprise 5 girls and 5 boys and will follow the same format. A moderator will initiate a discussion by asking some probing questions related to the media’s portrayal of famous models, diet control and disorders, and perception of body weight. All students have the right to speak or to stay silent (3.3 vii). Further, the moderator will ensure that all students’ opinions are respected (1.1 i; 1.1 ii) and that all participants receive and have the opportunity to comment on the pre-publication transcript. Students can withdraw any comments (3.3 vi).

 

WORD COUNT: 145

 

Scenario 3

 

Question 1

 

This study, in its present form, does not comply with the ethical principles of the British Psychological Society. On analysis, one is drawn to the issue of respect (principle 1). In order to reduce socially desirable responding, the researcher has decided to add further, unrelated questions, telling the participants that the research addresses several topics. At first glance, this approach may be considered to be deceptive (1.3 xii); it is, thus, extremely important that researchers respect the clients’ knowledge, insight and experience (1.1 ii), ask permission to transcribe the interview from the tape recording (1.2 x) and follow up the study with a debrief (3.4 i; 1.2 iv; 1.1 ii).

 

WORD COUNT: 99

 

Question 2

 

I think that it is important to advise the participants that this study will focus on one specific topic and that, in order to provide more objective answers in the semi-structured questionnaire, the researchers have decided to withhold the precise nature of the investigation until completion. It is important to make this point at the start so that participants do not feel deceived (1.3 xii) or even patronized (1.1 ii); and, although they will be aware of an unknown hypothesis, the questions, as a result, might well draw out some unbiased responses. All participants have the right to decline answering any questions (3.3 vii).

 

WORD COUNT: 98

 

Question 3

 

At follow up, I would explain the precise nature and parameters of the investigation on students’ concepts associated with religious identity (3.4 i); however, I would also take care not to give any personal opinions which might carry any unintended weight (3.4 ii) or suggest social criticism.

 

WORD COUNT: 45