There are different different types of phobia listed in DSM IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994): agoraphobia, social phobia and specific phobia. Within the specific phobia category there are five subtypes of phobic anxiety: animal phobias, situational phobias, blood injection injury types, natural environment type and other type. Animal phobia usually has a childhood onset. Individuals who suffer from animal phobia can normally lead a normal life, but in some instances, a person might develop extreme avoidance and safety behaviours, and in these cases, it is helpful to seek psychotherapeutic support.

 

These are some examples of safety/avoidance behaviours:

1 Not being able to read a newspaper because of an uncontrollable fear that you might come across a cat on one of the pages.

2 Not being able to go on holiday abroad because of fear of seeing a large spider in the wild.

3 Screaming out loud and asking your boyfriend to check every room of the hotel for ants before you can go in.

If these scenarios sound familiar, it might be helpful for you o seek help now. The approach that David Kraft uses combines behaviour techniques with hypnosis. He will use systematic desensitization in order gradually and efficiently to reduce anticipatory anxiety to your feared object. The hypnosis will intensify you feelings of well being and control throughout the process.

 

David Kraft is a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and a full member of BSCAH. He runs a successful practice in Harley Street, London. To book a session, please ring 0207 467 8564.

 

London Hypnotherapy UK is the specialist partner of London Psychotherapy.

Offices and consulting rooms ar based at 10 Harley Street, London, W1G 9PF

Panic disorder is a chronic condition and an ongoing health problem (Milrod et al., 2007; Kraft 2012), and affects approximately 5% of the world’s population (Bienvenu, 2006). Individuals suffering from panic often go to accident and emergency departments in hospitals with a variety of unexplained symptoms including migraine, stabbing chest pains, heart fluttering, irritable bowel syndrome, dyspnea difficulty breathing, hyperhidrosis and insomnia.

David Kraft, a specialist Harley Street psychotherapist, uses a multi-modal approach to treatment. And, unlike many psychotherapists, who often take a great length of time to treat this condition, his solution-focussed approach helps a number of clients to take control of their life and to recover quickly from this problem.

If you would like an appointment, please ring 0207 467 8564 today.

 

David Kraft has publsihed many papers in the academic literature–in the UK and in Australia–and is a member of BSCAH.  

David Kraft PhD

 

David Kraft runs a successful psychotherapy practice in Harley Street. London. He has a diploma in Clinical Hypnosis (DCHyp) and an Advanced Certificate in Clinical and Strategic Hypnosis (A.Cert.CSHyp). He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and a member of The British Society of Clinical & Academic Hypnosis (BSCAH). In addition, he has completed the first year course in Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy at the London Centre for Psychotherapy. David’s psychiatric placement was at the Pembroke Centre—an early intervention service which is part of the Central & North West London NHS Foundation Trust.  

 

 

David has been researching psychotherapy and clinical hypnosis for several years now, publishing regularly in academic journals. He has written articles on driving phobia, mouse phobia, covert sensitisation, anxiety disorders, sleep disturbances, hyperhidrosis, sexual disorders, IBS, anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, agoraphobia, social phobia and panic disorder.  

 

David also has a Diploma in Clinical Psychology (Dip.Cl.Psy), both a degree (BMus) and doctorate (PhD) in classical music, a Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE), a Certificate in Psychoneuroimmunology and a level 5 certificate in teaching English to speakers of other languages (CELTA). At present, David is studying at the National College of Hypnosis and Psychotherapy in order to gain accreditation with the UKCP—at the end of this training, if successful, he will also gain a diploma and an advanced diploma in psychotherapy. He is also studying the language component of a degree (BA) in Thai at SOAS, University of London: he is in the third year of this degree, and is enjoying being part of the South East Asian Studies faculty.

 

For copyright reasons, the original article published in Contemporary Hypnosis cannot be included here. However, a pre-publication version can be included on one’s website. This is the pre-publication version of the original article. There is more information included here. I hope you enjoy reading about Tom Kraft–a famous academic and clinican. 

 

A tribute to Tom Kraft (1932-2008)

by David Kraft

 

 

Dr Thomas Kraft (‘Tom’) MB, ChB, FRCPsych, DPM died on the 10 of December 2008. Tom made a significant contribution to the field of integrative psychotherapy—that is to say, psychodynamic psychotherapy combined with hypnosis and/or behaviour therapy— and the following tribute celebrates the life of a man who supported, enriched and transformed the lives of many people in both short- and long-term therapy.

 

 

Life and Character

Tom was born in Berlin in 1932 into a wealthy Jewish family, where his grandfather owned a successful haberdashery business in the city. His father, a doctor of law, became aware very early on of the trend the political situation was taking, and he arranged for the family to leave for Switzerland as soon as possible. His grandfather, however, said that the prospect of a divided country and the possibility of mass segregation was not possible in Germany; however, he and his wife were later sent to a concentration camp and all of their assets were confiscated.

 

Tom adapted to life in Switzerland, enjoying Swiss chocolate and home-made ice cream, and teaching skiing in the alps for fruit at the tender age of five. He also learnt to speak Swiss dialect. From Switzerland. they moved to England through France and settled initially in Golders Green. Tom learnt to play the violin and, under his Aunt Truda’s influence, developed a love for classical—particularly, Baroque—music. During his childhood, Tom spent a significant amount of time at boarding school, which he hated. Nevertheless, Tom found a tree in one of the gardens and, in his spare time, he listened to the sounds of the birds, and he even created his own vegetable patch in the middle of the woods. When the family moved to Oxford, Tom continued to listen to classical music and to play the violin; he also worked hard at school and went to the theatre. The Oxford play company was always delighted when he came to visit because his infectious laugh made sure that the play would be a success.

 

Tom had wanted to become a doctor since the age of 5; at this age he had a first aid kit and he went around bandaging people throughout the day. It was almost an inevitability that he would train to become a doctor, and, Tom went to Leeds to do just that. Having qualified from Leeds Medical School in 1956, Tom held various house jobs in London—he was the house surgeon at St. Giles’ (1957-8), house physician at the Royal Northern (1957-8), Locum at the Brook and Dulwich Hospital (1958), House Physician at the Wittington (1958-9) and Senior House Officer at the Guy’s Maudsley Neurosurgical Unit (1959). During his national service, Tom was then stationed at Aldershot with the Royal Army Medical Corps, and was subsequently based in London and in the Middle East on the Heat and Acclimatisation trials. Tom also worked at the Army Information Offices in Belfast, Cambridge and Oxford: it was while he was in Belfast that he travelled regularly all the way back to London to finish a course in neurology at Hammersmith Hospital.

 

Tom went on to specialize in psychiatry. He worked at St Thomas’ for Dr William Sargeant, as a Psychiatric House Physician at the Netherne Hospital (1963-4), as a Senior House Officer, Registrar and Senior Registrar at St Clement’s (1964-9), Senior Registrar at Claybury Hospital (1969-71) and Senior Registrar at Barts’ (1971). Tom then set up in private practice in Harley Street (1971-2008) where he worked up until two weeks before his death in December 2008. Tom also treated patients in a number of institutions including the Grovelands’ Priory (1987-1995), the Florence Nightingale Hospital (1988-2003), Edenhall (1988-1998) and St Luke’s Hospital for the Clergy (2000-2008).       

 

It was in Harley Street that Tom developed still further his unique ability to treat patients. He became a lifeline for many patients. Some, who needed his continuous support, remained with him for years, while many others were, with his expertise, able to overcome their psychological conditions in a relatively short period of time. Tom had a tremendous success with thousands of patients over the 37 years in which he worked in private practice. He wrote some review papers, but many of his articles were case studies in which patients had successful outcomes: in many respects, these papers are a tribute to Tom’s life’s work.

 

Tom’s contribution to the field of integrative psychotherapy

It was as early as 1963, that Tom began working in the field of psychotherapy. He trained as a psychiatrist and completed the DPM in 1965; over the next few years, as part of his training, he underwent psychoanalysis himself and gained the MRCPsych in1973. During this period, Tom did some of the pioneer work in behaviour therapy which re-defined how behavioural approaches could be utilized in the treatment of psychological disturbances (Kraft & Burnfield, 1967; Kraft & Al-Issa, 1966; Al-Issa & Kraft, 1967; Kraft 1975). He employed learning theory in the treatment of a patient with traffic phobia (Kraft, 1965a), showed how aversion therapy could be utilized in the treatment of sexual perversions (Kraft, 1967), and used a combination of systematic desensitization and methohexitone in the successful treatment of premature ejaculation (Kraft & Al-Issa, 1968a). Tom introduced the concept that social anxiety was often connected with and the cause of drug abuse and alcholism (Kraft & Al-Issa, 1968b; Kraft 1969b; Kraft 1971b; Kraft, 1976). Further, in 1970, Tom showed that psychotherapy—specifically psycho-dynamically orientated psychotherapy—and behaviour therapy were not diametrically opposite (Kraft, 1970b).

 

Tom used Wolpe’s (1958) principle of reciprocal inhibition, using a graded hierarchy of increasing anxiety-provoking situations and pairing this with the relaxation in hypnosis. Tom used systematic sensitization in the treatment of heat phobia (Kraft & Al-Issa, 1965b), frigidity (Kraft & Al-Issa, 1967a), alcoholism (Kraft & Al-Issa, 1967b; Kraft, 1968; Kraft & Al-Issa, 1968b; Kraft, 1969c; Kraft, & Wijesinghe, 1970), cigarette addiction (Kraft & Al-Issa, 1967c), sexual disorders (Kraft, 1969), agoraphobia (Kraft, 1973), claustrophobia (Kraft, 1973), sea sickness (Kraft, 1984a), injection phobia (Kraft, 1984b), balloon phobia (Kraft, 1994) and driving phobia (Kraft & Kraft, 2004), cannabis and chocolate addiction (Kraft & Kraft, 2005), and hyperhidrosis (Kraft, 1985; Kraft and Kraft, 2007). Tom also employed all the sensory modalities in the hypnotherapy in order to re-create the experience as vividly as possible (Kraft, 1970a; Kraft, 1984a). He used systematic desensitization and combined this with psychotherapy: he found that the support that was given in the psychotherapy was essential in the treatment programme. He also used this integrative approach to help symptom relief for patients suffering from cancer (Kraft, 1991; Kraft, 1992; Kraft 1993a) and successfully treated patients with chemotherapy phobia (Kraft, 1993b), injection phobia, (Kraft, 1984b), stuttering (Kraft, 1994b), IBS (Kraft & Kraft, 2007b) and snoring (Kraft, 2003).    

 

 

Final Thoughts

Tom did not stand still. He continued to refine his work and challenge medical practitioners, psychiatrists, psychologists and psychotherapists. Early on in his career as a psychiatrist, he affectively stopped prescribing drugs because he felt that it was important to find the source of the problem and the psychodynamics responsible for the condition. He also felt that it was extremely important for patients to make their own decisions and that they should exercise control both in the consulting room and in their everyday lives. He continued to re-evaluate his thoughts from day to day, and he discussed these ideas and theories with his colleagues and with his son, David Kraft, who, having been essentially trained by Tom, has continued his work as a psychotherapist and hypnotherapist in private practice. Tom was a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine from 1959, and attended many lectures run by the Section of Hypnosis and Psychosomatic Medicine; he also trained students attending the Applied Hypnosis course at UCL; he gave many lectures on behalf of BSMDH and BSECH and was influential here as well as in private tutorials. He was a member of the BMA, an honorary member of BSCAH and a member of the Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration (SEPI). In 2005, Tom was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists.

 

Tom was a man of great integrity and was intrinsically caring and non-judgemental both in and outside the consulting room. Tom was an innovator and a pillar of strength. His influence has been profound both in the literature and as a teacher. For those that knew him, he was a source of knowledge with an incredible memory for detail; he was generous and kind; he had an infectious laugh and a warm aura about him; he was never arrogant, and, when you were with him, you knew you were always in safe hands. Tom will be missed by many people, but particularly by his family.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

 

Al-Issa  & Kraft, T. Personality factors in behavioural therapy. (1967) Canadian Psychologist, 8a: 218-222.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. The application of learning theory to the treatment of traffic phobia. (1965a) British Journal of Psychiatry, 111, 277-279.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I.Behaviour therapy and the recall of traumatic experience: a case study. (1965b), Behaviour Research & Therapy, 3, 55-58.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Brief behaviour therapy for the general practitioner. (1966) Journal of the College of General Practitioners, 12, 270-276.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Behavior therapy and the treatment of frigidity. (1967a) American Journal of Psychotherapy, 21, 116-120.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Alcoholism treated by desensitization: a case report. (1967b) Behaviour Research & Therapy, 5, 69-70.

 

Kraft, T & Burnfield, A. Treatment of neurosis by behaviour therapy. (1967) London Hospital Gazette Supplement 70, No. 2, 12-16.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Desensitization and reduction in cigarette consumption. (1967c) Journal of Psychology, 67, 323-329.

 

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy and the treatment of sexual perversions. (1967) Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 15, 351-357.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. The use of methohexitone sodium in the systematic desensitization of premature ejaculation. (1968a) British Journal of Psychiatry, 114, 351-352.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Desensitization and the treatment of alcohol addiction. (1968b), British Journal of Addiction, 63, 19-23.

 

Kraft, T. Experience in the treatment of alcoholism. (1968) In Progress in Behaviour      Therapy (Edited by H Freeman) Wright: Bristol (Pp 25-33.)

 

Kraft, T. Desensitization and the treatment of sexual disorders. (1969a) Journal of Sex Research,      5, 130-134.

 

Kraft, T. Psychoanalysis and behaviorism: a false antithesis. (1969b) American Journal of Psychotherapy, 23, 482-487.

 

Kraft, T. Alcoholism treated by systematic desensitization. A follow-up of eight cases.

(1969c) Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 18, 336-340.

Kraft, T. Systematic desensitization using emotional imagery only. (1970a) Perceptual and Motor Skills, 30, 293-294.

 

Kraft, T & Wijesinghe B. Systematic desensitization of social anxiety in the treatment of alcoholism: a psychometric evaluation of change. (1970) British Journal of Psychiatry, 117, 443-444.

 

Kraft, T. Psychotherapy and behaviour therapy: a combined technique. (1970b) London Hospital Gazette, October, 8-12,

 

Kraft, T. Social anxiety model of alcoholism. (1971).Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 797-798.

 

Kraft, T. The treatment of phobias by systematic desensitization: a follow-up of three cases. (1973) London Hospital Gazette, October, 2-6.

 

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy and personality change. (1975) International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 21, 111-116.

 

Kraft, T. The combined behaviour therapy-psychotherapy approach. (1976) Projective Psychology, 23,15-29.

 

Kraft, T. Systematic desensitization in a patient with poor visual imagery. (1984a)

Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 5, 45-47.

 

Kraft, T. Injection phobia: a case study. (1984b) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 1, 13-18.

 

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of hyperhidrosis. (1985) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, 11-13.

  

Kraft, T. Hypnotherapy for the terminally ill: the Edenhall experience. (1991) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 7, No 5, 21-24.

 

Kraft, T. Counteracting pain in malignant disease by hypnotic techniques: five case studies. (1992) Contemporary Hypnosis, 9, 123-129.

 

Kraft, T. Using hypnosis with cancer patients: six case studies. (1993a), Contemporary Hypnosis, 10, No 1, 43-48.

 

Kraft, T. A case of chemotherapy Phobia: an integrative approach. (1993b), Contemporary Hypnosis, 10, No 2, 105-111.

 

Kraft, T. The combined use of hypnosis and in vivo desensitization in the successful treatment of a case of balloon phobia, (1994a) Contemporary Hypnosis,11, No 2,71-76

 

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of stuttering, with a 10-year follow-up. (1994b) Contemporary Hypnosis, 11, No 3, 131-136.

 

Kraft, T. Treatment options for snoring. (2003) Journal of The Royal Society of Medicine 96,  No 9. 473.

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Creating a virtual reality in hypnosis: a case of driving phobia (2004), Contemporary Hypnosis. 21, No. 2, 79 – 85.

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Covert Sensitization revisited: Six Case Studies (2005) Contemporary Hypnosis, 22, No. 4: 202-209. 

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. An integrative approach to the treatment of Hyperhidrosis: Review and Case Study (2007a) Contemporary Hypnosis, 24, No 1: 38-45.

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Irritable Bowel Syndrome: symptomatic treatment approaches versus integrative psychotherapy’ Contemporary Hypnosis (2007b), 24, (4): 161-177.

 

Wolpe, J (1958). Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

 

 

 

Do you smoke? Have you tried to give up cigarettes? Have you tried nicotine patches and not managed to give up smoking? David Kraft can help.

David Kraft is a specialist psychotherapist in Harley Street, and he has help many people give up smoking in a short space of time–sometimes in one session.

For an appointment, phone Harley Street on 0207 467 8564.

David is a member of BSCAH and a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine.

The Royal Society of Medicine runs lectures for psychotherapists, health practitioners, psychologists and other therapists who have a legitimate reason for using hypnosis in clinical practice. There is a section which specializes in the use of clinical hypnosis–the Section of Hypnosis and Psychosomatic Medicine. BSCAH is a Professional organization, again, for people who use hypnosis in a clinical setting. Those accredited by BSCAH are suitably qualified and are registered members of a recognized medical, therapeutic, scientific or academic profession and have a legitimate reason for using hypnosis in their professional work. David is not, as yet, accredited by BSCAH. Individuals who wish to go to a therapist for psychological help should look at the BSCAH website. Both David and BSCAH do not recommend that individuals go to lay hypnotherapists. Hypnosis is not a therapy by itself: it should be use adjunctively by a fully-trained therapist–that is to say, a doctor, nurse, psychologist or registered psychotherapist.

The Harley Street Psychotherapist, David Kraft, has just published a paper on the treatment of a heavy smoker in ONE HOUR.

One can order the paper on line or go to the British Library. Smoking hypnotherapy is a cost effective form of treatment. For an appointment, please phone 0207 467 8564.

Kraft D (2012). Successful treatment of heavy smoker in one hour using split screen imagery, aversion, and suggestions to eliminate cravings. Contemporary Hypnosis & Integrative Therapy, 29 (2): 175-188.

 

David Kraft is a member of BSCAH and a fellow of the RSM.

The Central Nervous System and Human Behaviour

 

The following report provides a basic introduction to the central nervous system and how it affects behaviour. There are two communication systems—the central nervous system (CNS) and the hormonal system. Part 1 describes neuronal communication in the CNS, while Part 2 illustrates how human behaviour—mood, emotion, motivation, aggression and ideomotor control—is affected by neuronal systems in the brain.

 

Neurons are cells which transmit and process information. There are two main components of the neuron—the ‘cell body’, which contains the nucleus, and a long extension called ‘a process’. Neurons are found throughout the body. Neuronal transmission can be subdivided into two discrete structures—the central nervous system (CNS), which represents the largest part of the nervous system, and the peripheral nervous system, which controls the communication of neurons outside the CNS. The CNS, contained within the dorsal cavity, comprises the brain (cranial cavity) and the spinal cord (spinal cavity).

 

Toates (2007) describes basic neuronal activity in the context of a simple reflex reaction.  He points out that, when someone’s foot comes into contact with a sharp object, the neurons at the skin’s surface act as detectors, and, once stimulated, an electrical-chemical reaction takes place while messages are immediately directed towards the spinal cord and onto the brain.

 

In this example, for a split second, there is a significant increase in electrical activity in the foot—viz., the amount of voltage in a certain number of neurons in the skin of the foot has increased. The sudden change in electrical excitation, and its return to a base value, is called action potential. Action potentials travel incredibly quickly. These neurons, which convey information to the CNS through the spinal cord and then on to the brain, are sensory neurons: the brain then interprets the messages as pain. These messages, in most cases, will lead to an appropriate motor response—i.e., the person will take his foot away from the offending object. The action potential in this neuron will initiate muscle movement. These neurons are known as motor neurons.

 

Neurons communicate information through the synapse—a minute gap between cells. This is known as synaptic transmission. In this process, where one neuron passes on information to another neuron, the first neuron (‘sending neuron’) is known as the pre-synaptic neuron, while the second (‘receiving neuron’) is referred to as the post-synaptic neuron. It is important to note that, although the transmission of information in the brain is electrical, neuronal communication is a chemical conduction (Toates, 2007). When the action potential reaches the synapse, it releases neurotransmitters (chemical transmitter substances) which move across the synaptic cleft and interact with the specific receptors in the post-synaptic membrane (Kalat, 2000).

The chemical change at the synapse can be excitatory or inhibitory. In the first instance, excitation, there is an increased possibility of the post-synaptic neuron to exhibit action potential. However, a neurotransmitter can display inhibition; here, the second cell is less likely to show action potentials and there is a suppression of activity. One needs to be cautious when making assumptions about the link between psychological processing and neurochemical activity; nevertheless, biologically-orientated psychologists (for example, Toates, 2001; Stevens, 1996; Lefkowitz, Caron and Stiles, 1984) believe that, to a certain extent, our mood, emotion, action, motivation and body regulation are controlled by, and inextricably interconnected with, the neuronal pathways in the CNS. And, further, some reductionist biological psychologists, for example Crick (1994), believe that all psychological events can be explained in the context of neurochemical activity.

 

More importantly, changes in synaptic activity and neuronal function can cause one’s behaviour, mood or cognitive function to be altered. The main neurotransmitter systems are the noradrenaline system, the serotonin system and the cholinergic system. Thus, alcohol and cocaine alter synaptic activity—they interfere with cognitive functioning. Some people, having drunk large quantities of alcohol, suffer memory loss, while others loose their inhibitions, and perform acts which would be previously feared. Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine and leaves the neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap for a longer period of time. Cocaine users experience a ‘high’ when influenced by the drug; however, the dopamine depletion after a period of time can lead to an acute, but transitory, depression (Toates, 2007).

 

Prozac, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) blocks the reuptake of the serotonin being taken back into the neuron from which it was released, thus increasing its activity at the receptors. It is important to note that, like the monoamine neurotransmitters (MAOIs) and the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), prolonged use of SSRIs may not be effective and can lead to homeostasis or even down regulation (Sampson, 2001; Leykin, Amsterdam, DeRubeis et al, 2007). Nevertheless, antidepressants have continued to be used in the treatment of depression and, to some extent, monoamine neurotransmitter abnormalities—be they dopaminergic, serotonergic or noradrenergic—are involved in and related to depressive syndromes (McNeal and Cimbolic, 1986). Further, extreme stress and prolonged hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis mediated dysfunction can lead to depression and a downstream of pathophysiological self-regulation (Anisman and Zacharko, 1982; Mello, Mello, Carpenter and Price, 2003). 

 

Finally, in addressing the question, ‘how human behaviour is mediated by the nervous system’, having given some examples pertaining to neural regulation and transmission, it is important to clarify and draw attention to two branches of the CNS—namely, (1) the somatic nervous system (SNS) and (2) the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SNS is responsible for and controls skeletal muscles and voluntary behaviour. The neurons of (normally) the frontal cortex communicate with the motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system, causing muscle contraction (Toates, 2007). Any damage to the frontal cortex due to cerebrovascular accidents or severe head injury can lead to impaired motor control.    

 

By contrast, the ANS is connected with involuntary, unconscious movement and response. The ANS controls emotion (crying, laughing), the production of saliva, breathing, heart rate, sweating amongst other things.  Stress, again, can cause fatty substances to sit in our circulatory pathways, producing high levels of cortisol and increased heart rates (Toates, 2007). As a result, in these situations, people sweat and get increasingly anxious: these physiological responses are all the result of autonomic,   defensive mechanisms.

Essay References

 

Anisman H & Zacharko RM (1982). Depression: the predisposing influence of stress. The Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 5: 89-137.

 

Crick F (1994). The astonishing hypothesis: the scientific search for the soul (London: Simon & Schuster).

 

Kalat, JW (2000). Biological Psychology  (Pacific Grove: California/Brooks Cole). 

 

Lefkowitz RJ, Caron MC, Stiles GL (1984). Mechanisms of membrane-receptor regulation. Biological, physiological and clinical insights derived from studies of the adrenergic receptors. New England Journal of Medicine, 310: 1570-79.

 

Leyton Y, Amsterdam  JD, DeRubeis RJ, Gallop R, Shelton RC & Hollon SD (2007). Progressive resistance to a selective serotonin inhibitor but not to cognitive therapy in the treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75 (2): 267-276. 

 

McNeal ET & Cimbolic P (1986). Antidepressants and biochemical theories of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 99 (3): 361-374.

 

Mello AAF, Mello MF, Carpenter LL & Prive LH (2003. Update on stress and depression: the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis (HPA) axis. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 25 (4): 231-38.

 

Sampson SM (2001). Treating depression with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a practical approach. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 76 (7): 739-44.  

 

Toates, F (2007). Biological processes and psychological explanation. In D Miell, A Phoenix & K Thomas (eds.) Mapping Psychology: Book 1 Introduction and Chapters 1-5 (Milton Keynes: Open University Press): 225-283.

 

Part 2: Methods Exercises

 

Question 1

(a) The control for perceived harmfulness—the fact that all the creatures were harmless and were found injured in the wild—was not entirely successful, because most participants considered rats as potentially threatening, injured or not.

 

(b) The two variables were (1) ‘Ugliness’ (a subjective mean score of how ugly the animals were), and (2) ‘Rated Distance’, (how far away the participants would keep away from the animal).

 

(c)

(i) The scatterplot shows that there is a strong correlation coefficient.

 

(ii)  As the value of the variable on the x-axis increases, generally, the value of the variable on the y axis increases.

 

(iii) Generally, the more ugly the animal, the greater distance, on average, participants would stay away from each animal. Note ugliness was measured on subjective responses from individuals on a scale from 1-10 (1=least ugly; 10=most ugly). 

 

(d) 0.723 is a strong correlation coefficient.

 

(e) The researcher would design a field experiment. In the first instance, he would ask a veterinary surgeon permission to use five injured/sedated animals for an experiment and would position these animals in the centre of a small forest. The researcher would then, one by one, measure the participants’ willingness to approach each animal (in metres).  Each participant, having approached each animal will be required to rate each animal on ugliness. This will be done using a scale from 1-10 (1=least ugly; 10=most ugly). Each test will be recorded at the same time each day, and each animal will show no movement. Rats will not be used in the experiment.      

 

 

 

Question 2

(a)

(i) This experiment is a ‘Between-Participants Design’.

 

(ii) The ‘Within-Participants Design’, also called ‘repeated measures’, is an experiment which requires each participant to take part in two separate conditions; the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin (1969) experiment cited measures the occurrence of altruism in 103 different trials on the 8^th Avenue in New York. Different participants are involved in each trial. This is an independent sample design.   

 

(b) The participants were the passengers travelling on the subway.

 

(c)  The dependent variable is the number of participants who helped the victims on each occasion. The researchers measured this variable to see how it was affected by the independent variable. Perhaps, a suitable label would be, ‘level of altruism’. 

 

(d) Non-intrusive female observers recorded whether or not one or more passengers helped them (although the text intimates that passengers were either helped or not at all).

 

(e) The independent variable is the type of victim—an apparently disabled person or a person pretending to be drunk. A suitable label would be, ‘disabled/drunk’.

 

(f) This was a random allocation exercise.

 

(g) Other independent variables that could be considered would be correlation between altruism and race—that is to say, the likelihood of people helping an African American versus a Caucasian American. 

 

(h) The researchers did not consider any distress or inconvenience that this might have caused the unknowing participants. No feedback was given, and this might have affected some participants’ willingness to travel on the subway in the future. 

 

Question 3

(a) The researchers controlled the experiment by randomly allocating the children to groups, but by telling them that they were assigned to a specific group for a reason—that is to say, that they preferred abstract painting A or B. 

 

(b) All the children were the same age (aged 10-11).

 

(c)

(i) The fact that one school was a mixed independent school and the other was a girls’ school could be a confounding variable.

 

(ii) There were, probably, more girls in the experiment than boys. Some girls might have favoured responses from girls in both schools (over the boys in one school). In addition, some pupils might have favoured students’ responses from their own school over the other school.

 

(iii) The researchers could design two separate experiments—the first for the mixed school, and the second for the girls’ school.

 

(d)

(i) Pupils could favour the responses from pupils in their own school.

 

(ii) Again, the researchers would reduce confounding data by limiting each experiment to one school.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Identity.

 

The purpose of this report is to describe two different methods that have been used to investigate identity—(1) The Twenty Statements Test (Kuhn and McPartland, 1954) and (2) Marcia’s Semi-Structured Identity Status Interview (Marcia, 1966, 1980, 1994). Essentially, this report is in two parts: part 1 describes the two different methods, placing them in context, and part 2 discusses the importance of these approaches to our understanding of identity.

 

Methods: The Twenty Statements Test and Marcia’s Semi-Structured Identity Status Interview

 

Since William James’ psychological theories of identity and self consciousness (James, 1890), many researchers have devised methods and theories further to explain the concept of identity. Important theories include: (1) The Psychosocial Theory (Erikson, 1956, 1968; Marcia, 1966), (2) Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986; Turner, 1982) and (3) Social Constructionism (Gergen, 1999). Although not associated with the identity theories above, the Twenty Statements Test (TST) is a useful tool for researchers investigating identity. Here, participants are given 12 minutes to jot down their individual responses to the question, ‘Who am I?’ They are required to answer the question 20 times. It was found that participants taking part in the experiment revealed simple, important facts about themselves, such as age, gender, marital status, as well as more complex, subtle insights into their personality, such as information about self image or personal belief systems. Answers can be categorised as follows:

 

(1) Physical Self (height, hair colour)

(2) Social Rôle (footballer, student)

(3) Personality (kind, sensitive)

(4) Existential (religious, human being)

 

The categorisation of these answers has been modified by many researchers and reviewers (Montemayer and Eisen, 1977; Miell, Phoenix and Thomas, 2007).

 

James Marcia’s Semi-Structured Interview is inextricably linked to the Psychosocial Theory of identity. Like Erikson, Marcia focused his attention on adolescence (Erickson’s fifth psychosocial stage) and devised a questionnaire which was intended to analyse the changing nature of adolescents’ self identity. Marcia restricted his studies to male college students (aged 18-25) until the 1970s. Typically, the semi-structured interviews would last between 15-30 minutes and followed the same overall outline, although derivations were allowed in order to explore areas more thoroughly. These interviews were designed to examine particular themes, but the confederate experimenters—usually psychology students on the campus—were allowed to change the order of the questions, and this flexibility enabled them to pursue important ideas and concepts (Miell, Phoenix and Thomas, 2007). In addition, because the interviews were taped, the experimenters were able to make the process more conversational. Once all the information was collated, Marcia would then construct a scoring manual and each participant would be evaluated against the criteria. Thus, this approach is both quantitative, in its coding of participants’ comments and analysing percentages of answers, and qualitative, in the identifying of general themes and overriding conceptions. Marcia focused on adolescents’ commitment and crises levels associated with jobs, politics, sexuality, religion, relationships and ideology.

 

Comments

 

The TST is a subjective approach for analysing identity, and it continues to be used today in various modified forms. After posing this simple question, participants, having responded with various answers which correspond to their own physical appearance or social rôle, may begin to question or recall their own personal experience and rôle in society. This approach is firmly in the hermeneutic tradition.

 

Of course, answers may depend on age. Montemayer and Eisen (1977) found that the TST revealed significant differences between age groups. For example, 9 year-olds tended to limit their answers to physical descriptions (‘I am thin’/’I wear bright clothes’) and likes and dislikes (‘I like dogs’/‘I hate opera’). Older children, in their answers, addressed social rôles (‘I am a team rep’) and personality (‘I am generous’). However, older teenagers (17-18 year olds) included information which was related to an abstract world (‘I am atheist’). Further, the older the children, the more they seemed to qualify their answers; for example, a seventeen year-old girl might state that she, ‘is usually generous unless [she] is tired’. Kuhn and McPartland (1954) found that the TST revealed answers which enabled them to draw conclusions about the self concepts of different age groups.

 

The TST is a simple approach which can also help the participant to analyse himself in isolation or in a social context. Thus, this method is introspectionist. It enables the researcher quickly to gain access to the participants’ identity and self esteem using the client’s own words. There is also the possibility of using this approach in a clinical setting. For example, a skilled psychologist may, when working with someone suffering from low self esteem, be able to draw out associations related to the client’s social identity.

 

Marcia’s Semi-Structured Interview has been modified many times and, perhaps, is the most well-known approach used by researchers in the study of identity (Kroger, 2000). Although the task experimenters follow the same outline, the flexibility of the approach—that is to say, the changing of the order and the qualifying remarks from the students—make it possible for the interjudge to gain some insight into the participants’ intrinsic identities and belief systems. For example, in the study by Marcia in 1966, a sample question in the occupational area was:

 

How willing do you think you’d be to give up going into_______if something better came along? (Marcia, p553)

 

Students qualified their answers, and the analyst categorised them into four statuses: (1) ‘Identity Achievement’ (subject committed to an occupation and ideology after crises), (2) ‘Moratorium’ (subject in a crisis period; vague), (3) ‘Foreclosure’ (subject not having experienced crisis; lack of belief; still fulfilling parents’ goals) and (4) ‘Identity Diffusion’ (subject has lack of commitment). A great deal of information about personal/social identity can be taken from one or two terse responses. Sample answers to the above question were as follows:

 

[Identity Achievement] Well, I might, but I doubt it. I can’t see what “something better” would be for me.

[Moratorium] I guess if I knew for sure I could answer that better. It would have to be something in the general area—something related.

[Foreclosure] Not very willing. It’s what I’ve always wanted to do. The folks  are happy with it and so am I.

[Identity Diffusion] Oh sure. If something better came along, I’d change just like that. (Marcia, p553)

 

Although this approach is time consuming and focuses on personal identity without giving much thought to the individuals’ rôle in a social context, the Semi-Structured Interview is a useful tool for analysing personal identity.

 

WORD COUNT: 999 (excluding references and headings)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References for Part 1

 

DSE 212 (2007). Exploring Psychological Research Methods (Milton Keynes: Open University Press).

 

Erikson EH (1956). The problem of ego identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4: 56-121.

 

Erikson E (1968). Identity, Youth and Crisis (New York: WW Norton & Co.).

 

Gergen K (1999). An Invitation to Social Construction (London: Sage)

 

James W (1890). Principles of Psychology (New York: Holt).

 

Kroger J (2000). Ego identity status research in the new millennium. International Journal for the Study of Behavioral Development, 24 (2): 145-8.

 

Kuhn MK, McPartland S (1954). An empirical investigation of self attitudes. American Sociological Review, 19: 68-76.

 

Marcia JE (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3: 551-8.

 

Marcia J (1980). Identity in adolescence, in J Adelson (ed.) Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (New York: Wiley).

 

Marcia J (1994). The empirical study of ego identity, in H Bosma, T Graafsma, H Grotevant and D de Levita (eds.) Identity and Development: an Interdisciplinary Approach (London: Sage).

 

Miell D, Phoenix A, Thomas K (2007). Mapping Psychology: Book 1 Introduction and Chapters 1-5 (Milton Keynes: Open University Press).

 

Montemayer R, Eisen M (1977). The development of self conceptions from childhood to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 13 (3): 314-9.

 

Tajfel H, Turner JC (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour, in  S Worchel and LW Austin (eds.) Psychology of Intergroup Relations (Chicago: Nelson-Hall).

 

Turner JC (1982). Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group, in H Tajfel (ed.) Social Identity and Intergroup Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

 

 

 

 

Part 2: Ethics Questions

 

Scenario 1

 

Question 1

 

No. The proposed investigation raises ethical concerns. Psychologists, including students, have an obligation to uphold professional standards, and here, they make no attempt to explain the nature of the research to the children. The BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (British Psychological Society, 2006) states that participants should be given, ‘ample opportunity to understand the nature, purpose, and…consequences of any…research participation’ (1.3 i). Consent forms were not mentioned (1.3 ii). There is a case, however, for observing individuals in public if they would, ‘reasonably expect to be observed by strangers…[and] believe they are unobserved’ (1.3 ix). However, no consent had been given from the Headteacher or the parents either.

 

WORD COUNT (excluding numbers and the one reference): 99

 

Question 2

 

The following proposal is a revised version of the original: it follows the principle tenets of the original observational approach while upholding the standards of ethical decision making—particularly informed consent (1.1 i; 1.3 xii; 3.3 i)—set by the BPS (British Psychological Society, 2006).

 

Stage 1

 

All students should explain to the Headteacher the purpose of the study and obtain written permission to carry out the observation (1.3 i).

 

Stage 2

 

The students should then write a detailed consent form (1.2 i; 1.2 ii; 1.3 i) for the parents to sign: this document should confirm: (1) the aims , (2) that no recordings will be taken (1.2 x), (3) that they will respect anonymity, (4) that any parent has the right to withdraw his/her child from the experiment (3.3 vi; 1.4 iii) and (5) that no financial compensation will be given (4.2 iv).

 

CRB checks received, they can proceed at a designated time, providing they make no contact with the children (4.2 i), that they wear school passes, and that members of staff are in situ. Feedback will be given (3.4 i).

 

 

WORD COUNT: 143

 

 

Scenario 2

 

Question 1

 

This study focuses on the influence of models on impressionable adolescents. Here, in order to use direct quotations from young people, Susie should have spoken to the adolescents, asking them whether they would be happy to participate or help with her research (1.3 i). With the appropriate consent forms, she would then be able to tape the conversation. Alternatively, she could devise a number of questions, akin to Marcia’s Semi-Structured Identity Interview (Marcia, 1966), which would focus on self-stereotyping and adolescent ideals. Again, Susie must make sure that she receives consent forms (1.3 ii) and explains the nature of the intended research (1.3 i).

 

WORD COUNT: 96

 

Reference to Question 1

 

Marcia JE (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3: 551-8.

 

Question 2

 

Quotations are useful for hermeneutic analysis; however, it is important to ensure the participants’ anonymity (1). The postgraduate researcher would be well advised to change all the names of the participants and remove any text or clues which might identify one of the students (DSE212, p34)

 

WORD COUNT: 44

 

Reference to Questions 2

 

DSE 212 (2007). Exploring psychological Research Methods (Milton Keynes: Open University Press).

 

Question 3

 

This study investigates the damaging effect of models on impressionable teenagers and the rise of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. First, researchers will ask students whether they would like to be involved in the study, obtain consent forms (1.3 ii) and explain the purpose of the study (1.3 i). Researchers will then allocate twenty adolescents (10 girls, 10 boys; age 15-16) to two groups. Each group will comprise 5 girls and 5 boys and will follow the same format. A moderator will initiate a discussion by asking some probing questions related to the media’s portrayal of famous models, diet control and disorders, and perception of body weight. All students have the right to speak or to stay silent (3.3 vii). Further, the moderator will ensure that all students’ opinions are respected (1.1 i; 1.1 ii) and that all participants receive and have the opportunity to comment on the pre-publication transcript. Students can withdraw any comments (3.3 vi).

 

WORD COUNT: 145

 

Scenario 3

 

Question 1

 

This study, in its present form, does not comply with the ethical principles of the British Psychological Society. On analysis, one is drawn to the issue of respect (principle 1). In order to reduce socially desirable responding, the researcher has decided to add further, unrelated questions, telling the participants that the research addresses several topics. At first glance, this approach may be considered to be deceptive (1.3 xii); it is, thus, extremely important that researchers respect the clients’ knowledge, insight and experience (1.1 ii), ask permission to transcribe the interview from the tape recording (1.2 x) and follow up the study with a debrief (3.4 i; 1.2 iv; 1.1 ii).

 

WORD COUNT: 99

 

Question 2

 

I think that it is important to advise the participants that this study will focus on one specific topic and that, in order to provide more objective answers in the semi-structured questionnaire, the researchers have decided to withhold the precise nature of the investigation until completion. It is important to make this point at the start so that participants do not feel deceived (1.3 xii) or even patronized (1.1 ii); and, although they will be aware of an unknown hypothesis, the questions, as a result, might well draw out some unbiased responses. All participants have the right to decline answering any questions (3.3 vii).

 

WORD COUNT: 98

 

Question 3

 

At follow up, I would explain the precise nature and parameters of the investigation on students’ concepts associated with religious identity (3.4 i); however, I would also take care not to give any personal opinions which might carry any unintended weight (3.4 ii) or suggest social criticism.

 

WORD COUNT: 45

Dear Sir

I read ‘Either/Or’ and various Kierkegaard when I was at school and got really into it. Oli and I used to rush to the library after our philosophy class in order to look up some of the theories that our teacher had talked about. I also read Nietzsche too. What I found fascinating is that many of us live in society and are bound by societies rules and modes of action. I began to challenge these rules and to think more liberally about rules and laws. I realized very early that living a purely hedonistic or anarchic life would only cause me problems. I found that becoming aware of your personal freedom, one only realizes what one can’t do. However, I have lived my life challenging perceptions which are just accepted by some people. Indeed, there seems to be a collective conscious book of laws that even bridges across from culture to culture. I challenge these.

 

The thought that humans are basically alone in the world is very negative. And, I don’t agree. Existential therapists feel that it is are connection with others that makes are lives bearable. So, we are not alone. Existential therapist would disagree with me there, and say that the search for meaning and contentment must come from inside rather than from others. I disagree with this fundamentally. However. in Albert Camus’  ‘L’Etranger’, the protagonist (hero/anti-hero) does reject his pre-existing theories on human existence and morality, and invents his own, subjective modus vivendi.

 

Subjectivity is at the heart of this philosophy. The concept of the ‘good life’ is something that I have had in the back of my mind since I learnt about this philosophy at school. It means that one is prepared and has the courage to lead one’s own life and take responsibility for the consequences. One creates meanings for one’s self. By creating and asking questions; by building and enjoying one’s own-crafted adventure, one is happy in fulfilling one’s own personalized potential.

 

During existential therapy, clients are encouraged to feel that their lives our coincidental and attention is focussed on the present. One begins to have a more dissociative idea about one choices in life, and one becomes freer to make choices. By accepting that one has no destiny, the idea is that one may become more accepting about life and the freedom of choice.

 

Having imagination is an essential part of being a ‘good hypnotic subject’. However, what defines this? Is it one’s ability to visualize and to take on board the suggestions of the therapist, or is it one’s skill in being able to create images and to adapt them appropriately. Consider this as a theory. We all have the equal imagination and it is just a question of tapping into these resources—be they visual, gustatory, olfactory, auditory, kinaesthetic or emotional

 

Further, what is intelligence and how does one measure it? Standard IQ tests measure one form of intelligence with a criteria for this formulation but it excludes other important intelligences such as kinaesthetic-dominant intelligence, and creative thinking intelligence.

And why is it important for someone to be highly hypnotizable. I don’t want a debate about low, medium and deep state trance (e.g. Cardeña, 2005), but, if my work with visualization anything to go by, one can do a great deal of effective work without the need of a formal induction and/or deepener. Using naturalistic induction can also produce a deep state. Whether a deep state helps the efficacy of the therapy is debatable.  

Self Esteem

Self esteem is a fundamental mechanism that helps individuals to maintain inner balance. It is what emcompasses our core belief system and our sense of welling being, our confidence and inner abilities in isolation and in social settings. Our self concept is a descriptive set of constructs. For example:

 

I am a good mother

I am confident

I am caring

 

Self esteem is so important for maintaining and living a happy life. Maslow pointed out that the central core of one self image can be maintained and balance if one is accepted, loved and respected by others. This respect, ideally, should come from members of one’s family, a significant partner, and at work. If one feels this natural place within society and at home one is able to self-actualize. Absence of these fundamental mechanisms can cause distress, and self-defeating mechanisms. Sometimes when I work with clients, I get the impression that they have never been given adequate love or a place in society and that it needs to start in the consulting room. People also need to be cared for with the appropriate food and water and need to feel safe. See (Maslow’s pyramid).