I believe that unconditional positive
regard is one of the most important aspects to what I do as a therapist. It is
difficult as a therapist. We see lots of clients, and we don’t know whether
they are telling the truth or not, or whether they do what they say they are
going to do. And this is more difficult when we see clients on a long term
basis. And what do we do when someone is going to act in a certain way and we
don’t approve of this. Obviously, if it is an ethical concern one has to deal
with this appropriately with regard to UKCP regulations. But what if it is
something that we just feel is over the top or not right. We should delve into
our own consciousness to see whether we are showing signs of prejudice. If we
challenge our client we might break rapport.

This sounds a bit abstract, so I am going to give some example. What would you
do if you found out that your client was intending writing a long e-mail to
everyone in a Scout Group—all the organizers, the treasurer, chairman, all the
parents, the cleaners, secretary and so forth. Your client is upset that no one
was there to help him when he arrived last Thursday. He reads out a three page
e-mail with a reply from an irate lady. He now says that he is going to write
to the local MP, the houses of commons, the pope, Tony Blair and so forth.

You mention to him that this might be over the top, but you can do little more
than this. You can’t him not to do this. It will be difficult o show
unconditional positive regard after this. And, even if, through the words you
say, you are keeping to this principle, your body language may not be.
However, as far as possible, and there are no absolutes, one should have an
unconditional positive regard for one’s clients, even if it is difficult.
Another example is this.
What might you do after your client has had a huge transference and has
directed all his or her aggression towards you. This involved swearing,
accusations that you are useless and threatening language. One has to
understand why this transference has taken place. Even so, it might be very
difficult to show UPR after this experience.

Some initial thoughts…

 

With many of my clients, I feel that they
are constantly being challenged and not believed. They are being told off or
put in a compromising position. However, when speaking to me, this is often the
first time that they are not challenged. This is often the first time that they
feel supported unconditionally. And, whatever they say—within reason—they know
that they will have my support.

This enables them to say whatever they need to get better, or to work things
through. Because of my non-judgemental approach (Rogers, 1968)—which is
inextricably linked with UPR—they might be able to tell me about things they
haven’t told anyone else about. They can go into free association without fear
that they might be judged. This enables my clients to be ‘authentic’ (Rogers,
1971). UPR builds trust.

Tom Kraft’s Publications (total =67)

 

Al-Issa  & Kraft, T. Personality factors in behavioural therapy. (1967) Canadian Psychologist, 8a: 218-222.

 

Kraft D & Kraft T. Use of in vivo and in vitro desensitization in the treatment of mouse phobia: review and case study. In press.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. The application of learning theory to the treatment of traffic phobia. (1965) British Journal of Psychiatry, 111, 277-279.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I.Behaviour therapy and the recall of traumatic experience: a case study. (1965), Behaviour Research & Therapy, 3, 55-58.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Brief behaviour therapy for the general practitioner. (1966) Journal of the College of General Practitioners, 12, 270-276.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Behavior therapy and the treatment of frigidity. (1967) American Journal of Psychotherapy, 21, 116-120.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Alcoholism treated by desensitization: a case report. (1967) Behaviour Research & Therapy, 5, 69-70.

 

Kraft, T & Burnfield, A. Treatment of neurosis by behaviour therapy. (1967) London Hospital Gazette Supplement 70, No. 2, 12-16.

Personality factors in behaviour therapy. (1967) Canadian Psychologist, 8a, 218-

222.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Desensitization and reduction in cigarette consumption. (1967) Journal of Psychology, 67, 323-329.

 

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy and the treatment of sexual perversions. (1967) Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 15, 351-357.

 

Kraft, T.  A case of homosexuality treated by systematic desensitization. (1967) American Journal of Psychotherapy, 21, 815-821.

 

Kraft, T. Treatment of the housebound-housewife syndrome. (1967) Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics15, 446-453.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. The use of methohexitone sodium in the systematic desensitization of premature ejaculation. (1968) British Journal of Psychiatry, 114, 351-352.

 

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Desensitization and the treatment of alcohol addiction. (1968), British Journal of Addiction, 63, 19-23.

 

Kraft, T. Experience in the treatment of alcoholism. (1968) In Progress in Behaviour      Therapy (Edited by H Freeman) Wright: Bristol (Pp 25-33.)

 

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of drinamyl addiction. (1968) British Journal of      Psychiatry, 114, 1363-1364.

 

Kraft, T. Social anxiety and drug addiction. (1968) British Journal of Social Psychiatry, 2, 192-195.

 

Kraft, T. Behavior therapy and target symptoms. (1969) Journal of Clinical Psychology,      25,105-109.

 

Kraft, T. Treatment of drinamyl addiction. (1969) International Journal of Social of Addictions, 4, 59-64.

 

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of chronic barbiturate addiction. (1968) British Journal     of Addiction, 64, 115-120.

 

Kraft, T. Desensitization and the treatment of sexual disorders. (1969) Journal of Sex Research,      5, 130-134.

 

Kraft, T. Erotisierte Übertragung in der Verhaltenstherapie. (1969) Zeitschrift für      Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychoanalyse,15, 126-130.

 

Kraft, T. Psychoanalysis and behaviorism: a false antithesis. (1969) American Journal of Psychotherapy, 23, 482-487.

 

Kraft, T. Alcoholism treated by systematic desensitization. A follow-up of eight cases.

(1969) Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 18, 336-340.

 

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy or personality therapy? (1969) Psychotherapy and        Psychosomatics, 17, 217-225.

 

Kraft, T. Drug addiction and personality disorder. (1970) British Journal of Addiction,

64, 403-408.

 

Kraft, T. Systematic desensitization using emotional imagery only. (1970) Perceptual and Motor Skills, 30, 293-294.

 

Kraft, T. Treatment of drinamyl addiction. Two case studies. (1970) Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 150, 138-144.

 

Kraft, T. Sexual factors in the development of the housebound housewife syndrome. (1970) Journal of Sex Research, 6, 59-63.

 

Kraft, T & Wijesinghe B. Successful treatment of drinamyl addicts and associated personality changes. (1970) Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 15, 223-227.

 

Kraft, T. Systematic desensitization of social anxiety in the treatment of alcoholism: a psychometric evaluation of change. (1970) British Journal of Psychiatry, 117, 443-444.

 

Kraft, T. Psychotherapy and behaviour therapy: a combined technique. (1970) London Hospital Gazette, October, 8-12,

 

Kraft, T. Social anxiety model of alcoholism. (1971).Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 797-798.

 

Kraft, T. A case of homosexuality treated by combined behaviour therapy and psychotherapy. (1971) Psychotherapy and Psychosomiatics, 19, 342-358.

 

Kraft, T. The use of behavior therapy in a psychotherapeutic context. Chapter in Clinical      Behavior Therapy (Edited by A A Lazarus) Brunner/Mazel: New York.(1972)

 

Kraft, T. The treatment of phobias by systematic desensitization: a follow-up of three cases. (1973) London Hospital Gazette, October, 2-6.

 

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy and personality change. (1975) International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 21, 111-116.

 

Kraft, T. In vivo desensitization of a phobic shop steward. (1975) Psychotherapy and      Psychosomatics, 26, 294-302.

 

Kraft, T. Long-term effects of behaviour therapy. (1976) British Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 510-511.

 

Kraft, T. The combined behaviour therapy-psychotherapy approach. (1976) Projective Psychology, 23,15-29.

 

Kraft, T. The quality of recovery after behaviour therapy: a nine year follow-up study.

 (1980) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, January, 3-26.

 

Kraft, T. Systematic desensitization in a patient with poor visual imagery. ((1984)

Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 5, 45-47.

 

Kraft, T. Injection phobia: a case study. (1984) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 1, 13-18.

 

Kraft, T. A reply to Heap’s comments on “Injection phobia: a case study”. (1984) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 1, 39-40.

 

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of hyperhidrosis. (1985) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, 11-13.

 

Kraft, T. The successful treatment of a case of night terrors (pavor nocturnus). (1986) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 3, 113-119.

 

Kraft, T. Brief hypnotherapy. (1986) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, No. 2, 15-20.

 

Kraft, T. The treatment of avoidance reactions. Two case studies. (1988)

Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, No. 3,

18-21.

 

Kraft, T. Use of hypnotherapy in anxiety management in the terminally ill: a preliminary study. (1990) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 7, 27-33.

 

Kraft, T. Working with terminally ill patients. (1989) Proceedings of the British Society

of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, No. 4, 16-20.

 

Kraft, T. Hypnotherapy for the terminally ill: the Edenhall experience. (1991) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 7, No 5, 21-24.

 

Kraft, T.  Hypnosis for the terminally ill: a review of the first thirty cases. (1991) Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Conference of the British Society of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, University of Sheffield, April 1990 (Edited by Michael Heap. 81-87.

 

Kraft, T. Counteracting pain in malignant disease by hypnotic techniques: five case studies. (1992) Contemporary Hypnosis, 9, 123-129.

 

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy for performance anxiety: a psychodynamic explanation for  rapidity of treatment. (1992) Contemporary Hypnosis, 9, No. 3, 175-181.

 

Kraft, T. Using hypnosis with cancer patients: six case studies. (1993), Contemporary Hypnosis, 10, No 1, 43-48.

 

Kraft, T. A case of chemotherapy Phobia: an integrative approach. (1993), Contemporary Hypnosis, 10, No 2, 105-111.

 

Kraft, T. The combined use of hypnosis and in vivo desensitization in the successful treatment of a case of balloon phobia.(1994) Contemporary Hypnosis,11, No 2,71-76

 

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of stuttering, with a 10-year follow-up.(1994) Contemporary Hypnosis, 11, No 3, 131-136.

 

Kraft, T. Using Hypnosis to aid recovery of taste sensation after a course of radiotherapy: a case study (1996) Contemporary Hypnosis. 13. No 2. 115-119

 

Kraft, T. Hypnotherapy and Visiting a Hypnotherapist. (2000), Inside the Human Body, 78, Unit 19 sheets 8 and 9.

 

Kraft, T. The use of direct suggestion in the successful treatment of a case of snoring. (2003), Contemporary Hypnosis, 20, No 2, 98 – 101.

 

Kraft, T. Treatment options for snoring. (2003) Journal of The Royal Society of Medicine 96,  No 9. 473.

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Creating a virtual reality in hypnosis: a case of driving phobia (2004), Contemporary Hypnosis. 21, No. 2, 79 – 85.

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Covert Sensitization revisited: Six Case Studies (2005) Contemporary Hypnosis, 22, No. 4: 202-209. 

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. The place of hypnosis in psychiatry: its applications in treating anxiety disorders and sleep disturbances (2006) Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 34. No 2: 187-203.

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. An integrative approach to the treatment of Hyperhidrosis: Review and Case Study (2007) Contemporary Hypnosis, 24, No 1: 38-45.

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. The place of hypnosis in psychiatry part 2: its application to the treatment of sexual disorders (2007) Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 35, No 2: 1-18

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Irritable Bowel Syndrome: symptomatic treatment approaches versus integrative psychotherapy’ Contemporary Hypnosis (2007), 24, (4): 161-177.

 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. The place of hypnosis in psychiatry part 3: the application to the treatment of eating disorders’ Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (2009), 37, No.1: 1–20.    

The following paper was written and subsequently published posthumously :

 

Kraft D & Kraft T (2010). Use of in vivo and in vitro desensitization in the treatment of mouse phobia: review and case study. Contemporary Hypnosis, 27 (3): 184-194.

David Kraft continues the work of his father in his practice in central London. To date, he has publsihed 17 peer-reviewed articles in the academic literature. He has written several articles for Contemporary Hypnosis, and, with his father, helped to permeate the use of a more flexible framework for integrative therapy in clinical practice. David is a member of BSCAH and a felow of the Royal Society of Medicine.     

  

Do you smoke? Have you tried to give up cigarettes? Have you tried nicotine patches and not managed to give up smoking? David Kraft can help.

David Kraft is a specialist psychotherapist in Harley Street, and he has help many people give up smoking in a short space of time–sometimes in one session.

For an appointment, phone Harley Street on 0207 467 8564.

David is a member of BSCAH and a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine.

The Royal Society of Medicine runs lectures for psychotherapists, health practitioners, psychologists and other therapists who have a legitimate reason for using hypnosis in clinical practice. There is a section which specializes in the use of clinical hypnosis–the Section of Hypnosis and Psychosomatic Medicine. BSCAH is a Professional organization, again, for people who use hypnosis in a clinical setting. Those accredited by BSCAH are suitably qualified and are registered members of a recognized medical, therapeutic, scientific or academic profession and have a legitimate reason for using hypnosis in their professional work. David is not, as yet, accredited by BSCAH. Individuals who wish to go to a therapist for psychological help should look at the BSCAH website. Both David and BSCAH do not recommend that individuals go to lay hypnotherapists. Hypnosis is not a therapy by itself: it should be use adjunctively by a fully-trained therapist–that is to say, a doctor, nurse, psychologist or registered psychotherapist.

The Central Nervous System and Human Behaviour

 

The following report provides a basic introduction to the central nervous system and how it affects behaviour. There are two communication systems—the central nervous system (CNS) and the hormonal system. Part 1 describes neuronal communication in the CNS, while Part 2 illustrates how human behaviour—mood, emotion, motivation, aggression and ideomotor control—is affected by neuronal systems in the brain.

 

Neurons are cells which transmit and process information. There are two main components of the neuron—the ‘cell body’, which contains the nucleus, and a long extension called ‘a process’. Neurons are found throughout the body. Neuronal transmission can be subdivided into two discrete structures—the central nervous system (CNS), which represents the largest part of the nervous system, and the peripheral nervous system, which controls the communication of neurons outside the CNS. The CNS, contained within the dorsal cavity, comprises the brain (cranial cavity) and the spinal cord (spinal cavity).

 

Toates (2007) describes basic neuronal activity in the context of a simple reflex reaction.  He points out that, when someone’s foot comes into contact with a sharp object, the neurons at the skin’s surface act as detectors, and, once stimulated, an electrical-chemical reaction takes place while messages are immediately directed towards the spinal cord and onto the brain.

 

In this example, for a split second, there is a significant increase in electrical activity in the foot—viz., the amount of voltage in a certain number of neurons in the skin of the foot has increased. The sudden change in electrical excitation, and its return to a base value, is called action potential. Action potentials travel incredibly quickly. These neurons, which convey information to the CNS through the spinal cord and then on to the brain, are sensory neurons: the brain then interprets the messages as pain. These messages, in most cases, will lead to an appropriate motor response—i.e., the person will take his foot away from the offending object. The action potential in this neuron will initiate muscle movement. These neurons are known as motor neurons.

 

Neurons communicate information through the synapse—a minute gap between cells. This is known as synaptic transmission. In this process, where one neuron passes on information to another neuron, the first neuron (‘sending neuron’) is known as the pre-synaptic neuron, while the second (‘receiving neuron’) is referred to as the post-synaptic neuron. It is important to note that, although the transmission of information in the brain is electrical, neuronal communication is a chemical conduction (Toates, 2007). When the action potential reaches the synapse, it releases neurotransmitters (chemical transmitter substances) which move across the synaptic cleft and interact with the specific receptors in the post-synaptic membrane (Kalat, 2000).

The chemical change at the synapse can be excitatory or inhibitory. In the first instance, excitation, there is an increased possibility of the post-synaptic neuron to exhibit action potential. However, a neurotransmitter can display inhibition; here, the second cell is less likely to show action potentials and there is a suppression of activity. One needs to be cautious when making assumptions about the link between psychological processing and neurochemical activity; nevertheless, biologically-orientated psychologists (for example, Toates, 2001; Stevens, 1996; Lefkowitz, Caron and Stiles, 1984) believe that, to a certain extent, our mood, emotion, action, motivation and body regulation are controlled by, and inextricably interconnected with, the neuronal pathways in the CNS. And, further, some reductionist biological psychologists, for example Crick (1994), believe that all psychological events can be explained in the context of neurochemical activity.

 

More importantly, changes in synaptic activity and neuronal function can cause one’s behaviour, mood or cognitive function to be altered. The main neurotransmitter systems are the noradrenaline system, the serotonin system and the cholinergic system. Thus, alcohol and cocaine alter synaptic activity—they interfere with cognitive functioning. Some people, having drunk large quantities of alcohol, suffer memory loss, while others loose their inhibitions, and perform acts which would be previously feared. Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine and leaves the neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap for a longer period of time. Cocaine users experience a ‘high’ when influenced by the drug; however, the dopamine depletion after a period of time can lead to an acute, but transitory, depression (Toates, 2007).

 

Prozac, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) blocks the reuptake of the serotonin being taken back into the neuron from which it was released, thus increasing its activity at the receptors. It is important to note that, like the monoamine neurotransmitters (MAOIs) and the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), prolonged use of SSRIs may not be effective and can lead to homeostasis or even down regulation (Sampson, 2001; Leykin, Amsterdam, DeRubeis et al, 2007). Nevertheless, antidepressants have continued to be used in the treatment of depression and, to some extent, monoamine neurotransmitter abnormalities—be they dopaminergic, serotonergic or noradrenergic—are involved in and related to depressive syndromes (McNeal and Cimbolic, 1986). Further, extreme stress and prolonged hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis mediated dysfunction can lead to depression and a downstream of pathophysiological self-regulation (Anisman and Zacharko, 1982; Mello, Mello, Carpenter and Price, 2003). 

 

Finally, in addressing the question, ‘how human behaviour is mediated by the nervous system’, having given some examples pertaining to neural regulation and transmission, it is important to clarify and draw attention to two branches of the CNS—namely, (1) the somatic nervous system (SNS) and (2) the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SNS is responsible for and controls skeletal muscles and voluntary behaviour. The neurons of (normally) the frontal cortex communicate with the motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system, causing muscle contraction (Toates, 2007). Any damage to the frontal cortex due to cerebrovascular accidents or severe head injury can lead to impaired motor control.    

 

By contrast, the ANS is connected with involuntary, unconscious movement and response. The ANS controls emotion (crying, laughing), the production of saliva, breathing, heart rate, sweating amongst other things.  Stress, again, can cause fatty substances to sit in our circulatory pathways, producing high levels of cortisol and increased heart rates (Toates, 2007). As a result, in these situations, people sweat and get increasingly anxious: these physiological responses are all the result of autonomic,   defensive mechanisms.

Essay References

 

Anisman H & Zacharko RM (1982). Depression: the predisposing influence of stress. The Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 5: 89-137.

 

Crick F (1994). The astonishing hypothesis: the scientific search for the soul (London: Simon & Schuster).

 

Kalat, JW (2000). Biological Psychology  (Pacific Grove: California/Brooks Cole). 

 

Lefkowitz RJ, Caron MC, Stiles GL (1984). Mechanisms of membrane-receptor regulation. Biological, physiological and clinical insights derived from studies of the adrenergic receptors. New England Journal of Medicine, 310: 1570-79.

 

Leyton Y, Amsterdam  JD, DeRubeis RJ, Gallop R, Shelton RC & Hollon SD (2007). Progressive resistance to a selective serotonin inhibitor but not to cognitive therapy in the treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75 (2): 267-276. 

 

McNeal ET & Cimbolic P (1986). Antidepressants and biochemical theories of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 99 (3): 361-374.

 

Mello AAF, Mello MF, Carpenter LL & Prive LH (2003. Update on stress and depression: the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis (HPA) axis. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 25 (4): 231-38.

 

Sampson SM (2001). Treating depression with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a practical approach. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 76 (7): 739-44.  

 

Toates, F (2007). Biological processes and psychological explanation. In D Miell, A Phoenix & K Thomas (eds.) Mapping Psychology: Book 1 Introduction and Chapters 1-5 (Milton Keynes: Open University Press): 225-283.

 

Part 2: Methods Exercises

 

Question 1

(a) The control for perceived harmfulness—the fact that all the creatures were harmless and were found injured in the wild—was not entirely successful, because most participants considered rats as potentially threatening, injured or not.

 

(b) The two variables were (1) ‘Ugliness’ (a subjective mean score of how ugly the animals were), and (2) ‘Rated Distance’, (how far away the participants would keep away from the animal).

 

(c)

(i) The scatterplot shows that there is a strong correlation coefficient.

 

(ii)  As the value of the variable on the x-axis increases, generally, the value of the variable on the y axis increases.

 

(iii) Generally, the more ugly the animal, the greater distance, on average, participants would stay away from each animal. Note ugliness was measured on subjective responses from individuals on a scale from 1-10 (1=least ugly; 10=most ugly). 

 

(d) 0.723 is a strong correlation coefficient.

 

(e) The researcher would design a field experiment. In the first instance, he would ask a veterinary surgeon permission to use five injured/sedated animals for an experiment and would position these animals in the centre of a small forest. The researcher would then, one by one, measure the participants’ willingness to approach each animal (in metres).  Each participant, having approached each animal will be required to rate each animal on ugliness. This will be done using a scale from 1-10 (1=least ugly; 10=most ugly). Each test will be recorded at the same time each day, and each animal will show no movement. Rats will not be used in the experiment.      

 

 

 

Question 2

(a)

(i) This experiment is a ‘Between-Participants Design’.

 

(ii) The ‘Within-Participants Design’, also called ‘repeated measures’, is an experiment which requires each participant to take part in two separate conditions; the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin (1969) experiment cited measures the occurrence of altruism in 103 different trials on the 8^th Avenue in New York. Different participants are involved in each trial. This is an independent sample design.   

 

(b) The participants were the passengers travelling on the subway.

 

(c)  The dependent variable is the number of participants who helped the victims on each occasion. The researchers measured this variable to see how it was affected by the independent variable. Perhaps, a suitable label would be, ‘level of altruism’. 

 

(d) Non-intrusive female observers recorded whether or not one or more passengers helped them (although the text intimates that passengers were either helped or not at all).

 

(e) The independent variable is the type of victim—an apparently disabled person or a person pretending to be drunk. A suitable label would be, ‘disabled/drunk’.

 

(f) This was a random allocation exercise.

 

(g) Other independent variables that could be considered would be correlation between altruism and race—that is to say, the likelihood of people helping an African American versus a Caucasian American. 

 

(h) The researchers did not consider any distress or inconvenience that this might have caused the unknowing participants. No feedback was given, and this might have affected some participants’ willingness to travel on the subway in the future. 

 

Question 3

(a) The researchers controlled the experiment by randomly allocating the children to groups, but by telling them that they were assigned to a specific group for a reason—that is to say, that they preferred abstract painting A or B. 

 

(b) All the children were the same age (aged 10-11).

 

(c)

(i) The fact that one school was a mixed independent school and the other was a girls’ school could be a confounding variable.

 

(ii) There were, probably, more girls in the experiment than boys. Some girls might have favoured responses from girls in both schools (over the boys in one school). In addition, some pupils might have favoured students’ responses from their own school over the other school.

 

(iii) The researchers could design two separate experiments—the first for the mixed school, and the second for the girls’ school.

 

(d)

(i) Pupils could favour the responses from pupils in their own school.

 

(ii) Again, the researchers would reduce confounding data by limiting each experiment to one school.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Gregory Bateson has been an extremely influential figure on 20^th century philosophy, specifically with regard to social anthropology, linguistics, visual anthropology, semiotics, cybernetics, psychiatry and therapy. He spent some time in New Guinea observing and analyzing behaviour patterns in different cultures. I think that it help to analyze completely different cultures in this process because one can look at the correlation between speech, tone of voice and body language without too much of a bias. I am not sure about this therapy but he did spend a huge amount of time analyzing communication and interaction between people.

I should briefly like to mention two theories of his which I have found to be very helpful in my work as a psychotherapist and then I would like to expand on one particular theory.

 

His theory of the ‘vicious circle’ is very important. He points out that there is a vicious circle in communication, and that behaviour produces a reaction which, in turn, produces a subsequent behaviour from the interlocutor. Therefore the behaviour of X affects Y and he reacts in a certain way; then, Y behaves in a certain away and this is followed by X behaving in a certain fashion. Two presupposition of NLP take on board this theory—(1) ‘we calibrate on behaviour’, and (2) ‘words are not what they represent’ (Brookhouse, 2012).

Symmetrical relationships are also very important. He pointed out that there are two types of relationships:

Symmentrical relationships which involve people who are equals although competitive.

Complementary relationships in which there is unequal balance (eg the dominance-submission type between parent and child; or exhibition/spectatorship type between performer and audience).

 

Brookhouse S (2012). Conference presentation at the National College of Hypnosis and Psychotherapy. 25 March 2012.  

 

Double Binds       

Bateson studied with Donald Jackson, Jay Haley and John Weakland in the 1950s and did a huge amount of pioneering work on schizophrenia and its aetiology. They described the concept of ‘double binds’ and said how destructive this was to the development of a child’s behaviour. The pointed out that it a child was consistently given double binds by mother or father (or both) during development, he would then begin to construct the world out of contradictory cues and emotional messages. From the reading that I have done into the aetiology of neurosis, I have found that the double bind has a hugely negative effect on child development and one’s ability to act authentically in adult life. One only has to go back to the work of BF Skinner to remember the stress that was caused to the rat who came to a junction knowing that, although he received conditioning through the sense of smell that both doors could contain food, that  one door had food and the other didn’t. This caused anxiety. Wolpe (1958) also spoke of the manipulative nature of double binds in the context of the family.

I am sure that most here already know this term. But for the few that don’t, this is my definition. A double bind occurs when, normally, an authority figure—say, a parent, boss or teacher—gives mixed messages to his or her interlocutor. This person becomes a victim because he is unable to leave the communication field and he knows that either failing to fulfil one of the requests will result in punishment of some kind, or failure to believe that one of the statements is true will resilt in a misattunement of what is being said or displayed.

 

Examples of this are as follows:

1. The mother tells her daughter that she loves her but her face shows hatred or indifference.

2. Father to daughter: ‘You must take the rubbish out in the pouring rain, but only if you want to’.

3. Mother to son: ‘You must love me’.

4. Teacher to pupil: ‘Speak when you are spoken to’; and in the next instance, ‘Don’t talk back!’.

5. Father to son: ‘I am very angry with you—[with a big smile on his face] come here an give me a cuddle’.

In these instances, the victim is unable to define the paradoxical situation, and is unable to confront or resolve the conflict internal or externally. Thus, there is an entanglement of communication. The words, tone of voice and body language are not in sync with each other.

 

This theory is very helpful for us as psychotherapists because we can use positive double binds in order to provide choice in the consulting room. And, if one uses double binds and the apposition of opposites, as well as a response set one can really help clients to move on and reduce resistance in the therapy and in the hypnosis.

 

Here are some example of positive double binds. In fact, many NLP trained therapists do not know the origins of this term and call all ‘positive double binds’ simply ‘double binds’. But psychoanalysts, quite rightly I think, place a huge amount on the destructive nature of this in the family context.

 

Here are some examples:

 

1. Therapist to client/patient: ‘Would you like to feel completely comfortable and relaxed on that chair or the other chair’.

2. Therapist to client while encouraging time distortion: ‘ Did it seem a very long time to you or just sort of a really long time to you?’.

3. Therapist to client: ‘Are you ready to give up smoking now or in a few moments time?’.

Having imagination is an essential part of being a ‘good hypnotic subject’. However, what defines this? Is it one’s ability to visualize and to take on board the suggestions of the therapist, or is it one’s skill in being able to create images and to adapt them appropriately. Consider this as a theory. We all have the equal imagination and it is just a question of tapping into these resources—be they visual, gustatory, olfactory, auditory, kinaesthetic or emotional

 

Further, what is intelligence and how does one measure it? Standard IQ tests measure one form of intelligence with a criteria for this formulation but it excludes other important intelligences such as kinaesthetic-dominant intelligence, and creative thinking intelligence.

And why is it important for someone to be highly hypnotizable. I don’t want a debate about low, medium and deep state trance (e.g. Cardeña, 2005), but, if my work with visualization anything to go by, one can do a great deal of effective work without the need of a formal induction and/or deepener. Using naturalistic induction can also produce a deep state. Whether a deep state helps the efficacy of the therapy is debatable.  

Self Esteem

Self esteem is a fundamental mechanism that helps individuals to maintain inner balance. It is what emcompasses our core belief system and our sense of welling being, our confidence and inner abilities in isolation and in social settings. Our self concept is a descriptive set of constructs. For example:

 

I am a good mother

I am confident

I am caring

 

Self esteem is so important for maintaining and living a happy life. Maslow pointed out that the central core of one self image can be maintained and balance if one is accepted, loved and respected by others. This respect, ideally, should come from members of one’s family, a significant partner, and at work. If one feels this natural place within society and at home one is able to self-actualize. Absence of these fundamental mechanisms can cause distress, and self-defeating mechanisms. Sometimes when I work with clients, I get the impression that they have never been given adequate love or a place in society and that it needs to start in the consulting room. People also need to be cared for with the appropriate food and water and need to feel safe. See (Maslow’s pyramid).      

 

 

David Kraft has just published a paper on panic disorder. Please find the published abstract below for details.

To browse the entire issue please press the following link, HERE.

 

Panic Disorder Without Agoraphobia. A Multi-Modal Approach: Solution-

Focused Therapy, Hypnosis and Psychodynamic Psychotherapy

David Kraft

Abstract

The case study reports the successful treatment and remarkable recovery in six

sessions of a 24 year old female student with a 6 month history of panic disorder

without agoraphobia. The treatment used was a multi-modal approach which

combined psychodynamically-orientated psychotherapy with hypnosis and solutionfocused

brief therapy. With the complex nature of panic disorder, this case study

reiterates the importance of helping patients to come to terms with the family

dynamics responsible for the condition and emphasizes that solution-focused

techniques and principles can be used to enhance the treatment, in that it helps

clients, in a relatively short space of time, to begin to reduce their anxiety outside

the comfort of the home, to focus on the present and to construct a new, preferred

future for themselves.

Key words:

 

panic disorder, solution-focused therapy, psychodynamic psychotherapy.

Dear sir

I am very keen to come for a session, but I wanted to know what sort of therapy you offer.

 

Thanks Geraldine

 

Dear Geraldine

I am a psychotherapist who uses a combination of psychodynamic psychotherapy and hypnosis. For some, hypnosis is not indicated. During the first session, we have time to talk about the process and would work best for you. Psychotherapy sessions are fifty minues and hypnotherapy sessions are the same length of time. I will also explain the process of hypnotherapy to you if this is indicated.

 

David Kraft

 

David Kraft is a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and a member of the British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis (BSCAH). He is also a member of the General Hypnotherapy Register, holding the General Qualification in Hypnotherapy Practice. David has a successful practic e in Harley Street.