I have been meaning to say this for a while. The word subconscious has been used so frequently that people are regarding it as a synonym for the word ‘unconscious’ But the word is ‘unconscious’. I hope you don’t mind me saying this. I have heard it in seminars and have kept silent. I have heard lecturers (not at this college) use the term. It is true that it has now started to be used by lecturers and in academic journals. However, I feel, if you want to be taken seriously, use the term ‘unconscious’. Just a tip really… As soon as I hear someone talking about the ’subconscious’ I ask myself, does this person know what they are talking about?

Freud did refer to the ‘preconscious’ which includes material just coming to the surface but this, whether it exists or not, is quite different from the unconscious.

When I was observed by Fiona, for a case study, the lady had an abreaction. This was helpful for my client; she was able to release some built up emotion and work on what she needed to do in life. The subsequent session—a more positive, goal-directed session—was much better as a result. Fiona was also pleased. It was a spontaneous abreaction and she pointed out that it was great to see that she was getting something out of the session, even though, essentially, the session was an observational exercise.

Geoff Ibbotson and Ann Williamson (Ibbotson & Williamson, 2010) talk of the value of helping one’s client experience a silent abreaction, and that this is particularly useful in the treatment of PTSD. Having used this approach myself, I feel that it is helpful for many reasons. The approach that Geoff uses encourages the client to imagine felling a tree (Ibbotson, 2012): during this process the client is able to get rid of a huge amount of negative feelings that no longer serve any purpose. The client is then instructed to plant a new tree in its place. The process, therefore, involves (1) letting go, (2) an elimination of unwanted emotion and rumination and (3) a re-building of positive, adaptive energy or behaviour.

Some hypno-analysts might insist that, without an abreaction, therapy cannot take place. I disagree. Certainly, if the abreaction is spontaneous, it cannot be helped. The abreaction should be allowed to take its course; it should then be used in order to effect change. Abreaction can be very helpful in order to come to terms with inner conflict, anxiety and stress. However, why would a therapist deliberately try to cause an abreaction? For example, when dealing with someone with a past trauma, by going back to the original incident, one will only re-traumatise the client and one could make him or her worse (Williamson, 2008). It is important to use some dissociative mechanism in place in order to help the person come to terms with the event. One could use a dissociative mechanism in which the emotion is taken out of the event (Brookhouse, 2012) or a bubble in which to deal with the past (Alden, 1995; Biddle, 2012). In all incidences, one should associate with the positive and dissociative from the negative (Ibbotson, 2012).

Alden P (1995). Back to the past: introducing the ‘bubble’. Contemporary Hypnosis, 12: 59-67.

Biddle, F (2012). Personal communication.

Brookhouse, S (2012). Seminar for the National College of Hypnosis and Psychotherapy.

Ibbotson, G (2012). Using visualization in the treatment of PTSD. Advanced Module for the National College of Hypnosis and Psychotherapy.

Ibbotson, G. (2012). Post‐traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In L. Brann, J. Owens and A. Williamson (Eds.) The handbook of contemporary clinical hypnosis: theory and practice, pp. 389-412. Chichester: Wiley & Sons.

Ibbotson, G., & Williamson, A. (2010). Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder using trauma-focused hypnosis. Contemporary Hypnosis, 27, 257-267.

Williamson A (2008). Brief Psychological Interventions in Practice. Chichester: John Wiley.

Gestalt Questioning

As far as I can tell, there is no such
thing as ‘Gestalt questioning’ per se. What I mean by this is that the
expression, as far as I know from the literature, has not been used regularly
in this form. Only Sapp (2010) and Hall (1977) use the expression in this form.
However, questioning in Gestalt therapy is an extremely important
tool/technique in Gestalt therapy. Gestalt therapy focusses on the here and the
now. Questioning using the words what and how can be used to help clients’
awareness of the moment. It helps client to ask themselves how they are feeling
and to enjoy or discover information about the present, whereas why question
illicit inwardness and rationalizations. Here is an example of this. If the
therapist asks the question, ‘What is happening now?’, the client will think
about the experience at that moment. Other questions such as, ‘What are you
feeling at this time?, and ‘What does that hand position you are doing mean to
you?’ can also help in this process. The Gestalt therapist encourages his
client to experience the moment and to live his feelings rather than to talk
about them. It is perhaps the questions that help clients to be able to
re-enact the past in the present. Nevis (1987) talks about guided questioning.
He points out that by using questions, the therapist can help the client to
re-discover the present and feelings of the moment in a form which he describes
as ‘open, undirected awareness’.

Nanci Bell (1991) uses her questioning skills in her work which focuses on
Gestalt imagery. She feels that it is important in therapy for her clients to
be able to visualize a whole image. She points out that some individuals are
unable to visualize a complete image during language communication and that,
despite having good communication skills, they are sometimes unable to embrace
the meaning of some verbal interactions such as understanding directions, a
joke or group conversations. She describes this as being one of the main causes
of dyslexia. She uses her questioning skills to help her dyslexic clients to
illicit more specific information. Nanci showed her clients pictures and ask
her clients to describe in detail what was happening. The questions she asked
included ‘What does it look like?, ‘What shape is it?, ‘What colour is it?,
‘Where did it happen?’. What mood is being evoked?, and so forth. This form of
questioning helps her clients to understand the elements of the image.
Questioning using choice and contrast provides the client with more control of
the images presented to him. Later, Nanci uses her questioning to ask the
client what words can be used to describe an object or a person; finally, she
asks the clients how to describe stimuli using sentences.

But I feel that in the consulting room, if one uses what and how questions, one
challenges the client to think about how he or she behaves, feels and thinks in
the moment. Perls (1967) spoke of the ‘safe emergency’ of the situation. During
the interaction with Gloria, it seemed as if he believed that the confrontation
was safe and that by accepting our actions we can move on to understanding our
reality. He constantly challenged Gloria by asking how and what questions in
order or her to act authentically in the here and now. And, during this
‘playful’ exchange, he was encouraging her to be able to interact successfully
with him so that she could then do it with other people.

When Gloria says that Perls was not sharing her pain and anger, and that he was
detached, Perls asked the question, ‘How should I be?’, and ‘Tell me you
fantasy; How should I behave?’ With these questions, Perls is encouraging
Gloria to accept her ‘authentic’ feelings.

These questions are very helpful in Gestalt therapy, and I would be happy to
use these sorts of questioning in psychotherapy where appropriate.

David Kraft is a psychotherapist in central London. The following is a list of his publications. He has written articles in both national and international journals.

(1) Kraft T & Kraft D (2004). Creating a virtual reality in hypnosis: a case of driving phobia. Contemporary Hypnosis, 21 (2): 79-85.

(2) Kraft T & Kraft D (2005). Covert sensitization revisited: six case studies. Contemporary Hypnosis, 22 (4): 202-209.

(3) Kraft T & Kraft D (2006). The place of hypnosis in psychiatry: its applications in treating anxiety disorders and sleep disturbances. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 34 (2): 187-203.

(4) Kraft T & Kraft D (2007). An integrative approach to the treatment of hyperhidrosis: review and case study. Contemporary Hypnosis, 24 (1): 38-45.

(5) Kraft T & Kraft D (2007). The place of hypnosis in psychiatry, part 2: its application to the treatment of sexual disorders. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 35 (1): 1-18.

(6) Kraft T & Kraft D (2007). Irritable Bowel Syndrome: symptomatic treatment approaches versus integrative psychotherapy. Contemporary Hypnosis, 24 (4): 161-177.

(7) Kraft D (2009). Tribute to Dr Thomas Kraft for BSCAH’ British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis Newsletter,3 (1): 11-12.    

(8) Kraft D (2009) Obituary: Thomas Kraft’ British Medical Journal, 338: b265.    

(9) Kraft T & Kraft D (2009). The place of hypnosis in psychiatry, part 3: the application to the treatment of eating disorders. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 37 (1): 1–20.

(10) Kraft D & Kraft T (2010). Use of in vivo and in vitro desensitization in the treatment of mouse phobia: review and case study. Contemporary Hypnosis, 27 (3): 184-194.   

(11) Kraft D (2010). A tribute to Tom Kraft (1932-2008): psychiatrist, integrative psychotherapist, and teacher. Contemporary Hypnosis, 27 (3): 221-224.   

(12) Kraft D (2011). The place of hypnosis in psychiatry, part 4: its application to the treatment of agoraphobia and social phobia. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Vols 38 (2) & 39 (1): 91-110.

(13) Kraft D (2011). Sharing experience: the waiting room. British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis Newsletter, 5 (2): 22-24.

(14) Kraft D & Hawkins PJ (2011). Eating disorders. In Les Brann, Jacky Owens, Ann Williamson (eds.) The Handbook of Contemporary Clinical Hypnosis: Theory & Practice (pp425-440). Wiley-Blackwell: Chichester.

(15) Kraft D (2011). Counteracting resistance in agoraphobia using hypnosis. Contemporary Hypnosis & Integrative Therapy, 28 (3):235-248.   

(16) Kraft D (2012). Panic disorder without agoraphobia. A multi-modal approach: solution-focused therapy, hypnosis and psychodynamic psychotherapy. Journal of Integrative Research, Counselling and Psychotherapy, 1 (1): 4-15.

(17) Kraft D (2012). Successful treatment of heavy smoker in one hour using split screen imagery, aversion, and suggestions to eliminate cravings. Contemporary Hypnosis & Integrative Therapy, 29 (2): 175-188.

(18) Kraft D (2012). Comment on Zimmerman’s use of the river metaphor in irritable bowel syndrome treatment. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 55 (2): 160-167.

David has recently written and published a paper in the American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis.

The psychotherapist David Kraft has written 17 papers in the academic literature. They are as follows:

(1) Kraft T & Kraft D (2004). Creating a virtual reality in hypnosis: a case of driving phobia. Contemporary Hypnosis, 21 (2): 79-85.

(2) Kraft T & Kraft D (2005). Covert sensitization revisited: six case studies. Contemporary Hypnosis, 22 (4): 202-209.

(3) Kraft T & Kraft D (2006). The place of hypnosis in psychiatry: its applications in treating anxiety disorders and sleep disturbances. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 34 (2): 187-203.

(4) Kraft T & Kraft D (2007). An integrative approach to the treatment of hyperhidrosis: review and case study. Contemporary Hypnosis, 24 (1): 38-45.

(5) Kraft T & Kraft D (2007). The place of hypnosis in psychiatry, part 2: its application to the treatment of sexual disorders. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 35 (1): 1-18.

(6) Kraft T & Kraft D (2007). Irritable Bowel Syndrome: symptomatic treatment approaches versus integrative psychotherapy. Contemporary Hypnosis, 24 (4): 161-177.

(7) Kraft D (2009). Tribute to Dr Thomas Kraft for BSCAH’ British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis Newsletter,3 (1): 11-12.    

(8) Kraft D (2009) Obituary: Thomas Kraft’ British Medical Journal, 338: b265.    

(9) Kraft T & Kraft D (2009). The place of hypnosis in psychiatry, part 3: the application to the treatment of eating disorders. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 37 (1): 1–20.

(10) Kraft D & Kraft T (2010). Use of in vivo and in vitro desensitization in the treatment of mouse phobia: review and case study. Contemporary Hypnosis, 27 (3): 184-194.   

(11) Kraft D (2010). A tribute to Tom Kraft (1932-2008): psychiatrist, integrative psychotherapist, and teacher. Contemporary Hypnosis, 27 (3): 221-224.   

(12) Kraft D (2011). The place of hypnosis in psychiatry, part 4: its application to the treatment of agoraphobia and social phobia. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Vols 38 (2) & 39 (1): 91-110.

(13) Kraft D (2011). Sharing experience: the waiting room. British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis Newsletter, 5 (2): 22-24.

(14) Kraft D & Hawkins PJ (2011). Eating disorders. In Les Brann, Jacky Owens, Ann Williamson (eds.) The Handbook of Contemporary Clinical Hypnosis: Theory & Practice (pp425-440). Wiley-Blackwell: Chichester.

(15) Kraft D (2011). Counteracting resistance in agoraphobia using hypnosis. Contemporary Hypnosis & Integrative Therapy, 28 (3):235-248.   

(16) Kraft D (2012). Panic disorder without agoraphobia. A multi-modal approach: solution-focused therapy, hypnosis and psychodynamic psychotherapy. Journal of Integrative Research, Counselling and Psychotherapy, 1 (1): 4-15.

(17) Kraft D (2012). Successful treatment of heavy smoker in one hour using split screen imagery, aversion, and suggestions to eliminate cravings. Contemporary Hypnosis & Integrative Therapy, 29 (2): 175-188.

These are the articles written by David Kraft to date. There is one in press which should come out in November.

David Kraft is a fellow of the RSM and a member of BSCAH.

Tom Kraft’s Publications (total =67)

Al-Issa  & Kraft, T. Personality factors in behavioural therapy. (1967) Canadian Psychologist, 8a: 218-222.

Kraft D & Kraft T. Use of in vivo and in vitro desensitization in the treatment of mouse phobia: review and case study. In press.

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. The application of learning theory to the treatment of traffic phobia. (1965) British Journal of Psychiatry, 111, 277-279.

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I.Behaviour therapy and the recall of traumatic experience: a case study. (1965), Behaviour Research & Therapy, 3, 55-58.

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Brief behaviour therapy for the general practitioner. (1966) Journal of the College of General Practitioners, 12, 270-276.

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Behavior therapy and the treatment of frigidity. (1967) American Journal of Psychotherapy, 21, 116-120.

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Alcoholism treated by desensitization: a case report. (1967) Behaviour Research & Therapy, 5, 69-70.

Kraft, T & Burnfield, A. Treatment of neurosis by behaviour therapy. (1967) London Hospital Gazette Supplement 70, No. 2, 12-16.

Personality factors in behaviour therapy. (1967) Canadian Psychologist, 8a, 218-

222.

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Desensitization and reduction in cigarette consumption. (1967) Journal of Psychology, 67, 323-329.

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy and the treatment of sexual perversions. (1967) Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 15, 351-357.

Kraft, T.  A case of homosexuality treated by systematic desensitization. (1967) American Journal of Psychotherapy, 21, 815-821.

Kraft, T. Treatment of the housebound-housewife syndrome. (1967) Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics15, 446-453.

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. The use of methohexitone sodium in the systematic desensitization of premature ejaculation. (1968) British Journal of Psychiatry, 114, 351-352.

Kraft, T & Al-Issa, I. Desensitization and the treatment of alcohol addiction. (1968), British Journal of Addiction, 63, 19-23.

Kraft, T. Experience in the treatment of alcoholism. (1968) In Progress in Behaviour      Therapy (Edited by H Freeman) Wright: Bristol (Pp 25-33.)

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of drinamyl addiction. (1968) British Journal of      Psychiatry, 114, 1363-1364.

Kraft, T. Social anxiety and drug addiction. (1968) British Journal of Social Psychiatry, 2, 192-195.

Kraft, T. Behavior therapy and target symptoms. (1969) Journal of Clinical Psychology,      25,105-109.

Kraft, T. Treatment of drinamyl addiction. (1969) International Journal of Social of Addictions, 4, 59-64.

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of chronic barbiturate addiction. (1968) British Journal     of Addiction, 64, 115-120.

Kraft, T. Desensitization and the treatment of sexual disorders. (1969) Journal of Sex Research,      5, 130-134.

Kraft, T. Erotisierte Übertragung in der Verhaltenstherapie. (1969) Zeitschrift für      Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychoanalyse,15, 126-130.

Kraft, T. Psychoanalysis and behaviorism: a false antithesis. (1969) American Journal of Psychotherapy, 23, 482-487.

Kraft, T. Alcoholism treated by systematic desensitization. A follow-up of eight cases.

(1969) Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 18, 336-340.

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy or personality therapy? (1969) Psychotherapy and        Psychosomatics, 17, 217-225.

Kraft, T. Drug addiction and personality disorder. (1970) British Journal of Addiction,

64, 403-408.

Kraft, T. Systematic desensitization using emotional imagery only. (1970) Perceptual and Motor Skills, 30, 293-294.

Kraft, T. Treatment of drinamyl addiction. Two case studies. (1970) Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 150, 138-144.

Kraft, T. Sexual factors in the development of the housebound housewife syndrome. (1970) Journal of Sex Research, 6, 59-63.

Kraft, T & Wijesinghe B. Successful treatment of drinamyl addicts and associated personality changes. (1970) Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 15, 223-227.

Kraft, T. Systematic desensitization of social anxiety in the treatment of alcoholism: a psychometric evaluation of change. (1970) British Journal of Psychiatry, 117, 443-444.

Kraft, T. Psychotherapy and behaviour therapy: a combined technique. (1970) London Hospital Gazette, October, 8-12,

Kraft, T. Social anxiety model of alcoholism. (1971).Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 797-798.

Kraft, T. A case of homosexuality treated by combined behaviour therapy and psychotherapy. (1971) Psychotherapy and Psychosomiatics, 19, 342-358.

Kraft, T. The use of behavior therapy in a psychotherapeutic context. Chapter in Clinical      Behavior Therapy (Edited by A A Lazarus) Brunner/Mazel: New York.(1972)

Kraft, T. The treatment of phobias by systematic desensitization: a follow-up of three cases. (1973) London Hospital Gazette, October, 2-6.

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy and personality change. (1975) International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 21, 111-116.

Kraft, T. In vivo desensitization of a phobic shop steward. (1975) Psychotherapy and      Psychosomatics, 26, 294-302.

Kraft, T. Long-term effects of behaviour therapy. (1976) British Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 510-511.

Kraft, T. The combined behaviour therapy-psychotherapy approach. (1976) Projective Psychology, 23,15-29.

Kraft, T. The quality of recovery after behaviour therapy: a nine year follow-up study.

 (1980) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, January, 3-26.

Kraft, T. Systematic desensitization in a patient with poor visual imagery. ((1984)

Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 5, 45-47.

Kraft, T. Injection phobia: a case study. (1984) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 1, 13-18.

Kraft, T. A reply to Heap’s comments on “Injection phobia: a case study”. (1984) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 1, 39-40.

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of hyperhidrosis. (1985) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, 11-13.

Kraft, T. The successful treatment of a case of night terrors (pavor nocturnus). (1986) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 3, 113-119.

Kraft, T. Brief hypnotherapy. (1986) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, No. 2, 15-20.

Kraft, T. The treatment of avoidance reactions. Two case studies. (1988)

Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, No. 3,

18-21.

Kraft, T. Use of hypnotherapy in anxiety management in the terminally ill: a preliminary study. (1990) British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, 7, 27-33.

Kraft, T. Working with terminally ill patients. (1989) Proceedings of the British Society

of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 6, No. 4, 16-20.

Kraft, T. Hypnotherapy for the terminally ill: the Edenhall experience. (1991) Proceedings of the British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis, 7, No 5, 21-24.

Kraft, T.  Hypnosis for the terminally ill: a review of the first thirty cases. (1991) Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Conference of the British Society of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis, University of Sheffield, April 1990 (Edited by Michael Heap. 81-87.

Kraft, T. Counteracting pain in malignant disease by hypnotic techniques: five case studies. (1992) Contemporary Hypnosis, 9, 123-129.

Kraft, T. Behaviour therapy for performance anxiety: a psychodynamic explanation for  rapidity of treatment. (1992) Contemporary Hypnosis, 9, No. 3, 175-181.

Kraft, T. Using hypnosis with cancer patients: six case studies. (1993), Contemporary Hypnosis, 10, No 1, 43-48.

Kraft, T. A case of chemotherapy Phobia: an integrative approach. (1993), Contemporary Hypnosis, 10, No 2, 105-111.

Kraft, T. The combined use of hypnosis and in vivo desensitization in the successful treatment of a case of balloon phobia.(1994) Contemporary Hypnosis,11, No 2,71-76

Kraft, T. Successful treatment of a case of stuttering, with a 10-year follow-up.(1994) Contemporary Hypnosis, 11, No 3, 131-136.

Kraft, T. Using Hypnosis to aid recovery of taste sensation after a course of radiotherapy: a case study (1996) Contemporary Hypnosis. 13. No 2. 115-119

Kraft, T. Hypnotherapy and Visiting a Hypnotherapist. (2000), Inside the Human Body, 78, Unit 19 sheets 8 and 9.

Kraft, T. The use of direct suggestion in the successful treatment of a case of snoring. (2003), Contemporary Hypnosis, 20, No 2, 98 – 101.

Kraft, T. Treatment options for snoring. (2003) Journal of The Royal Society of Medicine 96,  No 9. 473.

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Creating a virtual reality in hypnosis: a case of driving phobia (2004), Contemporary Hypnosis. 21, No. 2, 79 – 85.

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Covert Sensitization revisited: Six Case Studies (2005) Contemporary Hypnosis, 22, No. 4: 202-209. 

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. The place of hypnosis in psychiatry: its applications in treating anxiety disorders and sleep disturbances (2006) Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 34. No 2: 187-203.

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. An integrative approach to the treatment of Hyperhidrosis: Review and Case Study (2007) Contemporary Hypnosis, 24, No 1: 38-45.

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. The place of hypnosis in psychiatry part 2: its application to the treatment of sexual disorders (2007) Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 35, No 2: 1-18

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. Irritable Bowel Syndrome: symptomatic treatment approaches versus integrative psychotherapy’ Contemporary Hypnosis (2007), 24, (4): 161-177.

Kraft, T & Kraft, D. The place of hypnosis in psychiatry part 3: the application to the treatment of eating disorders’ Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (2009), 37, No.1: 1–20.    

The following paper was written and subsequently published posthumously :

Kraft D & Kraft T (2010). Use of in vivo and in vitro desensitization in the treatment of mouse phobia: review and case study. Contemporary Hypnosis, 27 (3): 184-194.

David Kraft continues the work of his father in his practice in central London. To date, he has publsihed 17 peer-reviewed articles in the academic literature. He has written several articles for Contemporary Hypnosis, and, with his father, helped to permeate the use of a more flexible framework for integrative therapy in clinical practice. David is a member of BSCAH and a felow of the Royal Society of Medicine.     

If you would like to find a therapist in London, why not ring London Hypnotherapy UK. Here, you will find highly qualified therapists who have been trained to use hypnosis as an adjunct to therapy.

David Kraft is a psychotherapist who uses hypnosis in treatment to enhance his work. Hypnosis is a tool to be used in conjunction with psychotherapy, CBT, medical or dental work.

David Kraft is a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and a member of the British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis (BSCAH).

If you would like help in finding a therapist, please call 0207 467 8564, for an appointment.

David Kraft

Psychotherapist and Hypnotherapist

For more information about BSCAH, please go to their website at http://www.bscah.com/

Finding a therapist in London can be hard work, so it is often helpful to go to a recognized organization in order find a suitable therapist who can help you. London Hypnotherapy UK recommends UKCP and BSCAH.

‘The effect of significant others on adult psychological development: a qualitative, thematic analysis of an interview with a 50-year-old woman’.

Abstract (99 words)

This study examines the view of attachment theorists within the object relations school that significant others in early life—that is to say, important, often older, influential figures—play an important role in an adult person’s psychological development, particularly with regard to later sexual relationships. A qualitative, thematic analysis was carried out on one pre-existing, and pre-transcribed interview between a psychology student and a 50 year old lady—Chloe. Third level thematic analysis provides evidence that dominant and influential figures—notably, parents, guardians and surrogate parents—shape the way in which individuals build relationships with others in later life.      

******

Introduction (755 words)

Throughout this study, through the discursive, thematic analysis of the text, and while constructing the report, I have kept within a social constructionist perspective—specifically, keeping in mind attachment theory. At the heart of developmental psychology is the assumption that vertical relationships with significant others in early childhood influence children’s psychological development. These influences shape the way that children interact with their peers but also affect the way in which they develop relationships with adults later in life. This topic is one that is extremely complex, and it is beyond the scope of this report to give a detailed analysis of attachment theory; however, there are a number of important aspects of this theoretical stance that are apposite to this study.

One of the most important themes in attachment theory is consistency or, rather constancy. It is extremely important for young children to know that they have a secure base to return to after they have explored some small part of the world. For instance, the healthy child, knowing that the parent will still be there after closing his eyes, will enjoy the peek-a-boo experience: it acts as a mechanism for testing reality, it begins the process of subjectivity for the child and, further, this ‘engagement-disengagement behaviour’ helps the child to explore the world in a safe way (Horner, 1985). 

However, when this security is disturbed, for instance when a member of the family triad moves away or separates permanently, consistency is interrupted. Similarly, when the family moves around too frequently, or when the family moves to another country where the child has to find new friends in a completely different culture, this can cause emotionally instability. The family home, as a unit, is thus extremely important. The importance of having a secure base and a consistently attuned relationship continues in later life. We are drawn to our significant others: we spend more time with older, wiser individuals who inspire us (vertical relationships) and feel attached, and are drawn towards, our sexual partners (horizontal relationships). And, when these relationships fail in some way, we often feel let down, and this has an impact on our every day lives.

Ainsworth and Bowlby (1991), key figures in the development of attachment theory, spoke constantly about how important it is for the child to have a secure base. Of paramount importance, however, was what they called the ‘primary attachment’—the relationship the child has with his mother. This should be a warm, continuous and intimate relationship where the child is protected from danger and is able to communicate effectively (Bretherton, 1997).  Here, the healthy child should be able to build an ‘internal working model’ of the mother in order to comfort himself—with the aid of a blanket or mobile toy of some kind—when she is not there. Later in life, this self comforting can manifest itself in the form of listening to music, reading a book or watching the television. Insecure individuals—those who have been let down by significant others in the past—find it more difficult to comfort themselves, and some turn to alcohol or drugs, some go to extremes to gain some sort of satisfaction, and many find it difficult to hold down relationships in adult life. Indeed, Hazan and Shaver (1987) gathered a large quantity of information on people’s attachment styles and devised three different stances: (1) Anxious avoidant style (Insecure), where the individual is somewhat uncomfortable being close to others, (2) Secure Style, where the individual finds is relatively easy to get along with others and (3) Anxious Ambivalent Style (Insecure), where other people are reluctant to get close to the individual. Further, Main, Kaplan and Cassidy (1985) used a standardized interview to explore how adults describe their childhood experiences with their parents; from the analysis of the data, they also described the extent to which significant others in early life affected children’s psychopathogy and their relationships later in life.

Importantly, however, it has been found that some adults, having experienced a difficult or enmeshed interaction with a family member as a child, are able, in the right circumstances, to move on in their lives and develop strong, secure marital relationships as an adult (Ainsworth, 1989). This is known as earned security (Main and Goldwyn, 1984).

The following iterative thematic analysis (involving re-working and re-drafting), which is in line with the above theoretical framework, looks at the way Chloe’s family dynamics have affected her relationships in adult life. The research question is as follows:

‘How do adults perceive that significant others in their lives have affected their development?’

Method (215 words)

The thematic analysis in this study has been taken from pre-existing material—a transcribed interview between a psychology student, Helen Lucey, and a participant, Chloe. In order to protect the privacy of both researcher and participant, and to respect the confidentiality of all concerned, the names have been changed. In addition, the interviews on the DVDs were played by actors but were based on interviews with the original research participants. This study focuses on the second of the two recorded interviews, but, in both cases, informed consent was given; further, both interviews have been edited in order to produce shorter extracts for analytical purposes. Thus, the research conforms to the BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct (British Psychological Society, 2006): informed consent has been given and both participants have been treated with mutual respect.

In the carrying out of the thematic analysis, I first highlighted the most important elements of the text in respect to the way in which Chloe’s past had influenced her development in later life. The next two stages (2^nd order coding and 3^rd order coding) involved a great deal of reflexivity, condensation, categorization and narrative structuring techniques. Finally, I compiled a number of important themes which indicated the extent to which Chloe had been affected by significant others in her childhood. 

Analysis (684 words)

At the beginning of the interview (see the appendix), the psychologist asked Chloe about her early relationships as a child and how she thought that they had influenced her in later life. Immediately, I was struck by the fact that Chloe had gone through an extremely difficult time with her mother when her father had left home. Her mother had been affected dramatically and had transferred a great deal of her pain towards her daughter, Chloe. In addition, Chloe was expected, somehow, to, ‘fill in for [her] dad’ and, ‘be a grown up’; certainly, she was too young to play this role and wasn’t sure how to act in this complex situation. She had to guess. It is interesting to point out that, in the first part of Chloe’s free association, between lines 20 and 34, she prefaced many of her recollections with the words, ‘sort of’—in fact, she said these words fourteen times. Perhaps, at the time of the interview, she was still unclear how she was supposed to behave. It is clear that the situation of being without a father and coping with her mother’s highly-charged emotional behaviour had had a deleterious affect on Chloe’s well being, and the process of analysis has revealed ways in which this has affected her future, adult relationships.

After reviewing the text and simplifying the codification, taking into account the research question, I have identified three main themes which point out that the early relationship between Chloe and her mother, from the age of eight onwards, had somewhat failed.

(1)   Mother’s depressive and self-centred behaviour

When the father left, Chloe described her mother as someone who had become, ‘really, really down and very, very needy’. Mothers have an instinct to support an nurture their children, but when this is reversed, and when the mother needs more support than the child, problems occur. Attachment theory is centred on the fact that the mother should support and care for her children. Chloe said of her mother that,

‘She was very depressed and very sad and…needy and there wasn’t really…much room for me, it was…it felt as if everything was…to do with what she needed’.

Further, Chloe felt unsupported: her mother was unable to empathize with or support her daughter, or even help her with any of her emotional problems. She reported that,

‘She wasn’t…good at…like if I was sad…she would be…very dismissive about it, what have you got to be sad about? And, you’re not really allowed to be sad.’

Chloe was also not able to express happiness:

‘And if I was very cheery about something it was like: oh, well it’s all right for you’.

As a result, Chloe felt that she had lost both ways (line 41): she was made to feel guilty about her feelings. More will be said about this theme in the third part of this section.  

(2)   Disappointment

When her father left, Chloe built up an idealized internal object of her father.

‘He was a super duper… a wonderful person and he loved me in all the, you know, in a very sort of complete way, a very accepting way’.

However, her dreams and illusions were shattered when she realized that he was, ‘a pompous and insecure person’, and he was, ‘not good…if [she was] grumpy’. Chloe was also disappointed about living with his new family.

(3)   Feelings of guilt (separation anxiety disorder and happiness)

From the text, Chloe made it clear that her mother disapproved of her being happy and made her feel guilty. The early relationship between mother and daughter was highly-charged and enmeshed: she felt that she was, ‘closely interwoven’, that she was, ‘too tied up together’ and, ‘too close’. Chloe used these phrases to describe the way that she felt prior to moving away to do her PhD. She also felt guilty when she met her first partner, and this manifested itself in her separation anxiety disorder:

‘I’d gone away, I’d left her; I’d got married and I was very happy, so I felt really bad about that, and I felt like I was deserting her…’

Discussion (420 words)

The main aim of this investigation was to use a personal account to draw out examples of how significant others affect psychological development. The three themes identified in the analysis show clearly how these early influences have affected Chloe’s future relationships. As soon as Chloe got back from her honeymoon, she felt miserable. She felt guilty about leaving her mother and also that she was happy. Her separation anxiety disorder, coupled with her feelings of guilt associated with her own happiness, had begun to interfere with her adult relationship. This links directly back to the fact that her mother, having lost her husband was not going to lose a daughter too, especially if she intended going to university and finding a husband of her own. One can only speculate how the theme of disappointment manifested itself within this relationship. It is interesting that she did not mention this in the interview.

It is important to point out here that, up until the stage when Chloe had decided to move away and work on her research degree, she felt too close, and perhaps controlled by her mother. The transferiential feelings of guilt had affected her relationships and also her ability to study (or make personal plans) on her own. She made a definite move away. Towards the end of the interview, Chloe used the word ‘space’ to describe a healing process: she was able to be disinterested about her mother, and to see the good things about her; she began to shift the blame away from herself; she didn’t feel guilty; and generally felt a lot happier. As a result, her second, ongoing relationship with Ian was a much more positive experience.

The extent of this adaptive behaviour was unexpected. Chloe, despite the extreme circumstances surrounding her childhood, had been able to work through her problems and build a successful relationship. This stresses the significance of ‘earned security’ in adult life (Main and Goldwyn, 1984): the fact that, regardless of early trauma, adults are able to have successful partnerships. In this case, it was Chloe’s acceptance and the fact that she had been able to disengage herself from her mother’s control that contributed to her well-being.

These findings support the view of attachment theorists that the mother/father bond with a child needs to be caring, attuned, supportive and consistent. The consequences of bad parenting can affect the child’s ability to have successful adult relationships in the future and, in addition, can limit their capacity for autonomy and adaptive self- nurturing.  

Reflexive Analysis (346 words)

It is inevitable, in an analysis of this kind, that a researcher is influenced by the comments of the participant and, to a certain extent, brings his own, personal experiences into play. These experiences affect and influence the interpretations. For instance, even the most experienced psychoanalysts, having undergone extensive and thorough personal analysis several times a week for many years, and having been trained to be unbiased and non-judgemental, still influence their patients in the comments that they make. Counter-transference is a common, and often helpful, phenomenon.

This thematic analysis was no exception. I think that I was influenced by the fact that Chloe felt guilty about moving away; I have experienced this myself, and I know many people who have also suffered guilt about separation. I also know the importance of personal space and how it is important to find somewhere away from one’s parents so that one can study effectively. In addition, I, even from the limited amount of information on the page, had some idea of the similar demographic position which Chloe had taken. I, thus, had to re-address the initial codification of the text. In the first instance, I noted the importance of space and fulfilling personal goals, but I realized that my own intentions and pre-occupations had affected my judgement—the important point was that Chloe had begun to move away from her mother and been able to work through her problems and build a successful relationship with Ian.

It would be interesting to add pauses to the text and to analyze the number of pauses and how they affected the content. Further research could be done in this area. In addition, I would be interested to analyze the significance of some of the repetitions and the repeated words and phrases such as ‘space’, ‘sort of’, ‘linking’ and ‘disappointment’ to name but a few. And, although I was interested in these phrases at the beginning of the analytical process—and I had to concentrate more specifically on the themes related to the research question—further investigation might reveal some  important implications. 

  TOTAL WORDS: 2, 489        

References

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